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FARM  MACHINERY 

AND 

FARM  MOTORS 


By 

J.  BROWNLEE  DAVIDSON,  B.S.,  M.E. 

Junior  Member  American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers 

if  Agricultural  En 
(owa  State  College 


Professor  of  Agricultural  Engineering 

lot       "'    '     ^  " 


LEON  WILSON  CHASE,  B.S.,  M.E. 

Associate  Member  American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers 

Associate  Professor  of  Farm  Mechanics 
University  of  Nebraska 


ILLUSTRATED 


NEW   YORK 

ORANGE    JUDD     COMPANY 

LONDON 
Kegan    Paul,    Trench,    Trubner    &    Co.,    Limited 
'  1914 


^^1^ 
T 


Copyright,  1908 
By  ORANGE  JUDD  COMPANY 

All   Rights   Reserved 


[entered   at    stationers'    hall,    LONDON,    ENGLAND] 


•  •  • 


Printed   in    U.   S.    A. 


PREFACE 

Instruction  pertaining  to  Farm  Machinery  and  Farm 
Motors  has  been  quite  recently  added  to  the  agricultural 
course  in  the  majority  of  the  agricultural  colleges  in  the 
United  States.  Although  the  need  and  importance  of 
such  a  study  was  self-evident,  it  was  a  new  field,  one  in 
which  the  knowledge  pertaining  to  the  subject  had  not 
been  prepared  and  systematized  for  instructional  pur- 
poses. The  latest  book  on  the  subject  of  Farm  Machinery 
was  written  by  J.  J.  Thomas  in  1869,  before  the  general 
introduction  of  labor-saving  machinery  for  farm  work. 
Alany  books  have  been  written  on  the  various  motors 
used  for  agricultural  purposes,  but  it  is  not  believed  that 
an  attempt  has  been  made  to  place  in  one  volume  a  dis- 
cussion of  them  all.  The  authors  have  felt  the  need  of  a 
text  for  instructional  purposes,  and  it  is  this  need  that  has 
prompted  them  to  prepare  this  book.  It  is  a  revision  of 
the  lecture  notes  used  before  their  classes  for  several 
years.  These  notes  were  prepared  from  a  careful  study 
of  all  the  available  literature  on  the  subject,  and  from 
observation  made  in  the  field  of  the  machines  at  work  and 
in  the  factories  where  they  are  made. 

A  list  of  the  literature  consulted  is  given  at  the  close 
of  the  book.  Free  use  has  been  made  of  all  this  as  well 
as  all  the  trade  literature  available,  and  for  this  an 
effort  has  been  made  to  give  due  credit.  Many  of  the 
illustrations  have  been  prepared  from  original  drawings 
by  the  authors;  however,  the  larger  number  are  those  of 
machines  upon  the  current  market. 

A  discussion  of  all  the  farm  machines  did  not  seem 
possible,  and  attention  may  be  called  to  the  omission  of 


299054 


VI  PREFACE 

seed  grading-  and  cleaning  machinery,  cotton  machinery, 
potato  machinery,  garden  machinery,  and  other  classes. 
The  amount  of  information  at  hand  concerning  these 
classes  of  machinery  did  not  justify  their  inclusion.  Farm 
Motors  has  been  made  more  complete,  but  some  of  the 
motors  used  to  a  limited  extent  in  agricultural  practice, 
as  hot-air  engines  and  water-wheels,  have  been  omitted. 
Although  electrical  machinery  is  not  much  used  in  agri- 
culture, its  use  is  increasing  and  the  interest  in  the  sub- 
ject has  been  so  general  that  a  chapter  on  the  same  has 
been  included.  As  the  efficiency  and  life  of  farm 
machinery  depends  largely  upon  the  way  and  manner  it 
is  repaired,  a  short  chapter  on  the  Farm  Workshop  has 
been  added. 

To  make  instruction  in  Farm  Machinery  and  Farm 
Motors  efficient  it  should  in  all  cases  be  supplemented 
with  laboratory  and  field  instruction,  and  it  is  not  the 
purpose  of  this  book  to  displace  such  instruction. 

An  attempt  has  been  made  to  make  the  material  practi- 
cal, useful  and  helpful,  and  although  written  primarily 
for  a  text  book,  it  is  hoped  that  it  will  be  useful  to  many 
engaged  in  practical  work. 

The  authors  know  that  their  attempt  to  prepare  a  text 
book  has  not  been  perfect,  and  not  only  will  errors  be 
found  in  the  subject  matter,  but  the  material  will  lack 
pedagogic  form  in  places.  Any  criticism  or  suggestions 
in  these  respects  will  be  duly  appreciated.  The  authors 
wish  also  to  acknowledge  the  obligations  they  owe  many 
friends  for  suggestions  and  aid  in  many  ways.  Thanks 
are  due  the  publishers  for  their  work  in  preparing  the 
illustrations,  which  at  first  seemed  to  be  an  almost  end- 
less task. 

*      J.  B.  Davidson. 
L.  W.  Chase. 


CONTENTS 


PART  I 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

Introduction i 

I.     Definitions  and  Mechanical  Principles 8 

II.     Transmission  of  Power 28 

III.  Materials  and  the  Strength  of  Materials       ....  43 

IV.  Tillage  Machinery 51 

V.     Tillage  Machinery   (Continued) 78 

VI.     Seeding   Machinery 102 

VII.     Harvesting   Machinery 136 

VIII.     Haying  Machinery 162 

IX.     Manure  Spreaders 191 

X.     Threshing  Machinery 203 

XI.     Corn  Machinery 221 

XII.     Feed  Mills 234 

XIII.  Wagons,  Buggies,  and  Sleds 241 

XIV.  Pumping  Machinery 258 

XV.     The  Value  and  Care  of  Farm  Machinery     ....  277 

PART  II 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

Introduction 281 

XVI.     Animal  Motors 284 

XVII.     Windmills 298 

XVIII.     Steam  Boilers 317 

XIX.     Steam  Engines 361 

XX.     Gas,  Oil,  and  Alcohol  Engines  . 401 

XXI.     Traction  Engines 43^ 

XXII.     Electrical  Machinery 460 

XXIII.    The  Farm  Shop 499 


FARM  MACHINERY 

PART   1 


INTRODUCTION 

I.  One  of  the  requirements  for  a  steady,  healthy  growth 
of  any  people  or  nation  is  a  bountiful  supply  of  food. 
The  earth  can  be  made  to  produce  in  abundance  only 
when  the  soil  is  tilled  and  plants  suitable  for  food  are 
cultivated.  As  long  as  the  people  of  the  earth  roamed 
about  obtaining  their  subsistence  by  hunting  and  fishing, 
conditions  were  not  favorable  for  a  rapid  increase  in 
population  or  an  advance  in  civilization.  Tribes  or 
nations  constantly  encroached  upon  each  other's  rights 
and  were  continually  at  war.  History  shows  that  when 
any  nation,  isolated  so  as  to  be  protected  from  the  attacks 
of  other  nations,  devoted  itself  to  agricultural  pursuits, 
its  government  at  once  became  more  stable  and  life  and 
property  more  secure.  Protected  in  this  way,  a  great 
nation,  shut  off  from  the  rest  of  the  world  by  natural 
means,  and  located  in  a  fertile  country,  arose  along  the 
banks  of  the  Nile  long  before  any  other  nation  reached 
prominence.  The  Gauls  became  mighty  because  they 
devoted  themselves  to  agriculture  and  obtained  in  this 
way  a  more  reliable  supply  of  food.  Pliny,  the  elder,  in 
his  writings  tells  of  the  fields  of  Gaul  and  describes  some 
of  the  tools  used.  It  has  been  estimated  that  there  never 
were  more  than  400,000  Indians  in  North  America,  and 
they  were  often  in  want  of  food.  Compare  this  number 
with  the  present  population.     The  tribes  that  flourished 


2  .     c .....     ,  p^j^jyj.  MACHINERY 

and  increased  in  numbers  were  those  who  had  fields  of 
grain  and  a  definite  source  of  food. 

2.  Change  from  hand  to  machine  methods. — When 
people  began  to  turn  their  attention  to  farming  they 
began  to  devise  tools  to  aid  them  in  their  work.  Various 
kinds  of  hoes,  crude  plows,  sickles,  and  scythes  were 
invented,  but  were  practically  all  hand  tools.  Work  with 
these  was  necessarily  very  laborious  and  slow.  The 
hours  of  labor  in  consequence  were  very  long,  and  the 
social  position  of  the  tiller  of  the  soil  was  low.  He  was 
in  every  sense  of  the  term  "the  man  with  the  hoe."  He 
became  prematurely  old  and  bent ;  his  lot  was  anything 
but  enviable. 

For  more  than  3.000  years  the  farmers  of  Europe,  and 
in  this  country  until  after  the  Revolutionary  War,  used 
the  same  crude  tools  and  primitive  methods  as  were  em- 
ployed by  the  Egyptians  and  the  Israelites.  In  fact,  it 
has  been,  relatively  speaking,  only  a  few  years  since  the 
change  from  hand  to  machine  methods  took  place.  In 
the  Twelfth  Census  Report  the  following  statement  is 
made :  ''The  year  1850  practically  marks  the  close  of  the 
period  in  which  the  only  farm  implements  and  machinery 
other  than  the  wagon,  cart,  and  cotton  gin  were  those 
which,  for  want  of  a  better  designation,  may  be  called 
implements  of  hand  production." 

McMaster,  in  his  ''History  of  the  People  of  the  United 
States,"  says :  ''The  Massachusetts  farmer  who  witnessed 
the  Revolution  plowed  his  land  with  the  wooden  bull 
plow,  sowed  his  grain  broadcast,  and  when  it  was  ripe, 
cut  it  with  a  scythe  and  threshed  it  out  on  his  barn  floor 
with  a  flail."  He  writes  further  that  the  poor  whites  of 
Virginia  in  1790  lived  in  log  huts  "with  the  chinks  stuffed 
with  clay ;  the  walls  had  no  plaster,  the  windows  had  no 
glass,  the  furniture  was  such  as  they  themselves  had 


INTRODUCTION  3 

made.  Their  grain  was  threshed  by  driving  horses  over 
it  in  the  open  field.  When  they  ground  it  they  used  a 
rude  pestle  and  mortar,  or  placed  it  in  a  hollow^  of  a 
stone  and  beat  it  with  another." 

3.  Effects  of  the  change. — At  any  rate,  a  great  change 
has  taken  place  and  all  in  little  over  a  half  century.  This 
great  change  from  the  simplest  of  tools  to  the  modern, 
almost  perfect  implements,  has  produced  a  marked  effect 
upon  the  life  of  the  farmer.  He  is  no  longer  *'the  man 
with  the  hoe,"  but  a  man  well  trained  intellectually. 

4.  Physical  and  mental  changes. — It  is  not  difficult  to 
realize  that  a  great  change  for  the  better  has  taken  place 
in  the  physical  and  mental  nature  of  the  farmer.  It  is 
vastly  easier  for  a  man  to  sit  on  a  modern  harvester, 
watch  the  machine,  and  drive  the  team,  than  it  is  to  work 
all  day  with  bended  back,  scuffling  along,  running  a 
cradle.  How  much  easier  it  is  to  handle  the  modern 
crop,  though  much  larger,  with  the  modern  threshing 
machine,  where  the  bundles  are  simply  thrown  into  the 
feeder,  than  to  spend  the  entire  winter  beating  the  grain 
out  with  a  flail.  The  farmer  can  now  do  his  work  and 
still  have  time  to  plan  his  business  and  to  think  of  im- 
provements. 

5.  Length  of  the  working  day. — One  of  the  marked 
effects  of  the  change  to  modern  machinery  methods  has 
been  a  shortening  of  the  length  of  the  working  day. 
When  the  work  was  done  by  hand  methods,  the  day 
during  the  busy  season  was  from  early  morn  till  late  at 
night.  Often  as  much  as  i6  hours  a  day  were  spent  in 
the  fields.    Now  field  work  seldom  exceeds  lo  hours  a  day. 

6.  Increase  in  wages. — According  to  McMaster,*  in 
1794  '"in  the  States  north  of  Pennsylvania"  the  wages  of 

♦McMaster:  "History  of  the  People  of  the  United  States," 
Vol.  II.,  p.  179. 


4  FARM    MACHINERY 

the  common  laborer  were  not  to  exceed  $3  per  month, 
and  ''in  Vermont  good  men  were  employed  for  £18  per 
year."  Even  as  late  as  1849,  the  wages,  according  to  sev- 
eral authorities,  did  not  exceed  $120  a  year.  Under  pres- 
ent conditions,  the  farm  laborer  is  able  to  demand  two, 
three,  and  even  five  times  as  much.  In  countries  where 
hand  methods  are  still  practiced,  wages  are  very  low. 
Men  are  required  to  work  all  day  from  early  morning  till 
late  at  night  for  a  few  cents.  In  some  of  the  Asiatic 
countries  it  is  said  that  men  work  from  four  in  the  morn- 
ing until  nine  at  night  for  14  cents.  Women  receive  only 
9  or  10  cents  and  children  7  or  8  cents. 

7.  The  labor  of  women. — Woman,  so  history  relates, 
was  the  first  agriculturist.  Upon  her  depended  the  plant- 
ing and  tending  of  the  various  crops.  She  was  required 
to  help  more  or  less  with  the  farm  work  as  long  as  the 
liand  methods  remained.  Machinery  has  relieved  her  of 
nearly  all  field  work.  Not  only  this,  but  many  of  the 
former  household  duties  have  been  taken  away.  Spinning 
and  weaving,  soap-making  and  candle-making,  although 
formerly  household  duties,  are  now  turned  over  to  the 
factory.  Butter  and  cheese  making  are  gradually  becom- 
ing the  work  of  the  factory  rather  than  that  of  the  home. 
Sewing  machines,  washing  machines,  cream  separators, 
and  numerous  other  inventions  have  come  to  aid  the 
housewife  with  her  work. 

8.  Percentage  of  population  on  farms. — During  the 
change  from  hand  to  machine  methods  there  was  a  great 
decrease  in  the  percentage  of  the  people  of  the  United 
States  living  upon  the  farms.  It  has  been  estimated  that 
in  1800  97  per  cent  of  the  people  were  to  be  found  upon 
the  farms.  By  1849  this  proportion  had  decreased  to  01 
per  cent,  and  according  to  the  Twelfth  Census  Rc;^ort  it 
\\Z3  only  35.7  per  cent.        ^ 


INTRODUCTION  5 

9.  Increase  in  production. — Notwithstanding  this  de- 
crease in  the  per  cent  of  the  people  upon  the  farms,  there 
has  been,  since  the  introduction  of  machinery,  a  great  in- 
crease in  production  per  capita.  In  1800  it  is  estimated 
that  5.50  bushels  of  wheat  were  produced  per  capita;  in 
1850,  according  to  the  Division  of  Statistics  of  the  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  production  had  decreased  to 
443  bushels.  This  was  before  the  effect  of  harvesting 
machinery  had  begun  to  be  felt.  People  were  leaving  the 
farms  and  the  production  of  wheat  per  capita  was  falling 
off.  The  limit  with  hand  methods  had  been  reached. 
Economists  were  alarmed  lest  a  time  should  come  when 
the  production  would  not  supply  the  needs  of  the  people. 
Through  the  aid  of  machinery  the  production  increased 
to  9.16  bushels  per  capita  in  1880,  7.48  bushels  in  1890, 
and  8.66  bushels  in  1900.  Perhaps  this  also  shows  that 
the  maximum  production  of  wheat  per  capita  with  present 
machinery  has  been  reached.  The  production  of  corn 
has  also  increased,  but  the  increase  is  not  so  marked. 
The  production  of  corn  per  capita  in  1850  was  25.53 
bushels ;  in  1900  it  was  34.94  bushels. 

10.  Cost  of  production. — Although  the  cost  of  farm 
labor  has  doubled  or  trebled,  the  cost  of  production  has 
decreased.  According  to  the  Thirteenth  Annual  Report 
of  the  Department  of  Labor,  the  amount  of  labor  required 
to  produce  a  bushel  of  wheat  by  hand  was  3  hours  and 
3  minutes,  and  now  it  is  only  9  minutes  and  58  seconds. 
The  cost  of  production,  as  compiled  by  Quaintance,*  was 
20  cents  by  hand  (1829-30)  and  10  cents  by  machinery 
(1895-96).  It  is  also  stated  in  the  Year  Book  of  the  De- 
partment of  Agriculture  for  1899  that  it  formerly  required 
II  hours  of  man  labor  to  cut  and  cure  i  ton  of  hay.    Now 

*The  Influence  of  Farm  Machinery  on  Production  and  Labor. 
Publications  of  the  American  Economic  Association,  Vol.  V., 
No.  4. 


6  FARM    MACHINERY 

the  same  work  is  accomplished  in  i  hour  and  39  min- 
utes. The  cost  of  the  required  labor  has  decreased  from 
83  1/3  cents  to  16  1/4  cents  a  ton.  Not  only  is  it  true 
that  machinery  has  revolutionized  the  work  of  making 
hay,  but  nearly  every  phase  of  farm  work  has  been  essen- 
tially changed. 

11.  Quality  of  products. — Machinery  has  also  improved 
the  quality  of  farm  products.  Corn  and  other  grains  are 
planted  at  very  nearly  the  proper  time,  owing  to  the  fact 
that  machinery  methods  are  so  much  quicker.  By  hand 
methods  the  crop  did  not  have  time  to  mature.  It  was 
necessary  to  begin  the  harvest  before  the  grain  was  ripe, 
and  hence  it  was  shrunken.  The  grain  is  obtained  now 
cleaner  and  purer.  It  would  be  difficult  at  the  present 
time  to  sell,  for  bread  purposes,  grain  which  had  been 
threshed  by  the  treading  of  animals  over  it. 

12.  Summary. — Great  changes  can  be  accounted  for  by 
the  introduction  of  machine  methods  for  hand  methods. 
For  all  people  this  has  been  beneficial.  It  has  caused  the 
rise  of  our  great  nation  on  the  Western  Hemisphere.  To 
no  class,  however,  has  this  change  been  more  beneficial 
than  to  the  farm  worker  himself.  J.  R.  Dodge  sum- 
marized the  benefits  derived  by  the  farm  worker  when 
he  wrote :  "As  to  the  influence  of  machinery  on  farm 
labor,  all  intelligent  expert  observation  declares  it  bene- 
ficial. It  has  relieved  the  laborer  of  much  drudgery; 
made  his  work  and  his  hours  of  service  shorter;  stimu- 
lated his  mental  faculties ;  given  an  equilibrium  of  eflfort 
to  mind  and  body ;  made  the  laborer  a  more  efficient 
worker,  a  broader  man,  and  a  better  citizen."* 

Conditions  in  America  have  been  very  favorable  for 
the  development  of  machinery.     We  have  never  had  an 

♦American  Farm  Labor  in  Rept.  of  Ind.  Com.  (1901).  Vol.  XL, 
p.  irj, 


INTRODUCTION  7 

abundance  of  farm  labor.  The  American  inventor  has 
surpassed  all  others  in  his  ability  to  devise  machines. 
By  this  machinery  the  farmer  receives  good  compensa- 
tion for  his  services  and  is  able  to  compete  on  foreign 
markets  with  cheap  labor  of  other  countries. 

Lastly,  it  seems  conclusive  that  an  agricultural  college 
course  is  not  complete  in  which  the  student  does  not 
study  much  about  that  which  has  made  his  occupation 
exceptionally  desirable.  It  should  be  an  intensely  prac- 
tical study,  for  under  present  conditions  success  or  failure 
in  farming  operations  depends  largely  upon  the  judicious 
use  of  farm  machinery. 


CHAPTER  I 

DEFINITIONS  AND  MECHANICAL  PRINCIPLES 

13.  Agricultural  engineering  is  the  name  given  to  the 
agricultural  achievements  which  require  for  their  execu- 
tion scientific  knowledge,  mechanical  training,  and  engi- 
neering skill. 

It  has  been  but  quite  recently  that  departments  have 
been  organized  in  agricultural  colleges  to  give  instruction 
in  agricultural  engineering.  The  name  is  not  as  yet  uni- 
versally adopted,  the  term  farm  mechanics  or  rural  en- 
gineering being  preferred  by  some.  It  is  hoped  that  in 
time  "agricultural  engineering"  will  be  generally  accepted, 
as  it  seems  to  be  the  broadest  and  most  appropriate  term 
to  be  given  instruction  defined  as  above.  Implement 
manufacturers  in  Europe  have  been  pleased  to  call  them- 
selves agricultural  engineers,  and  the  term  is  not  alto- 
gether a  new  one. 

Agricultural  engineering  embraces  such  subjects  as: 
(i)  farm  machinery,  (2)  farm  motors,  (3)  drainage, 
(4)  irrigation,  (5)  road  construction,  (6)  rural  architec- 
ture, (7)  blacksmithing,  and   (.8)  carpentry. 

14.  Farm  machinery. — Part  I.  of  this  treatise,  after  the 
present  chapter  of  definitions  and  mechanical  principles 
and  chapters  on  the  transmission  of  power  and  the 
strength  of  materials,  will  be  a  discussion  of  the  con- 
struction, adjustment,  and  operation  of  farm  machinery, 
and  will  include  the  major  portion  of  the  implements  and 
machines  used  in  the  growing,  harvesting,  and  preparing 
ot  farm  crops,  exclusive  of  those  used  in  obtaining  power. 
These  will  be  considered  in  Part  II.  under  the  title  of 


10  FARM    MACHINERY 

Farm  Motors.     The  following  definitions  and  explana- 
tions will  prove  helpful : 

15.  A  force  produces  or  tends  to  produce  or  destroy 
motion.  Forces  vary  in  magnitude,  and  some  means  must 
be  provided  to  compare  them.  Unit  force  corresponds  to 
unit  weight  and  is  the  force  of  gravitation  on  a  definite 
mass.  This  unit  is  arbitrarily  chosen  and  is  called  the 
pound.  The  magnitude  of  all  forces,  as  the  draft  of  an 
implement,  is  measured  in  pounds.  Forces  also  have 
direction  and  hence  may  be  represented  graphically  by  a 
line.  For  this  reason  a  force  is  sometimes  called  a  vector 
quantity.  Two  or  more  forces  acting  on  a  rigid  body  act 
as  one  force  called  a  resultant. 

Thus  in  Fig.  i,  O  A  and  O  B  rep- 
resent in  direction  and  magnitude 
two  forces  acting  through  the  point 
O.  O  C  is  the  diagonal  of  a  paral- 
lelogram of  which  O  A  and  O  B  are 
sides,  and  represents  the  combined 
action  of  the  forces  represented  by 
O  A  and  O  B,  or  is  the  resultant  of  these  forces.  This 
principle  is  known  as  the  parallelogram  of  forces. 

16.  Mechanics  is  the  science  which  treats  of  the  action 
of  forces  upon  bodies  and  the  effect  which  they  produce. 
It  treats  of  the  laws  which  govern  the  movement  and 
equilibrium  of  bodies  and  shows  how  they  may  be  util- 
ized. 

17.  Work. — When  a  force  acts  through  a  certain  dis- 
tance or  when  motion  is  produced  by  the  action  of  a 
force,  work  is  done.  Work  can  therefore  be  defined  as 
the  product  of  force  into  distance.  Work  can  be  defined 
in  another  way  as  being  proportional  to  the  distance 
through  which  the  force  acts,  and  also  to  the  magnitude 
of  the  force. 


DEFINITIONS  AND  MECHANICAL  PRINCIPLES  II 

i8.  Unit  of  work. — It  has  been  stated  that  the  unit  of 
force  is  the  pound.  The  unit  of  distance  is  the  foot.  The 
unit  of  work  is  unit  force  acting  through  unit  distance 
and  is  named  the  foot-pound.  A  foot-pound  is  then  the 
amount  of  work  performed  in  raising  a  mass  weighing 
I  pound  I  foot.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  amount  of 
work  done  in  raising  i  pound  through  lo  feet  is  the  same 
as  raising  lo  pounds  through  i  foot.  It  is  to  be  noted 
further  that,  in  considering  the  amount  of  work,  time  is 
not  taken  into  account.  It  is  the  same  regardless  of 
whether  i  minute  or  many  times  i  minute  was  used  in 
performing  the  operation.  The  horse-power  hour  is  an- 
other unit  of  work  commonly  used  and  will  be  under- 
stood after  power  has  been  defined. 

19.  Power  is  the  rate  of  work.  To  obtain  the  power 
received  from  any  source  the  number  of  foot-pounds  of 
work  done  in  a  given  time  must  be  determined.  The  unit 
of  power  commonly  used  is  the  horse  power. 

20.  A  horse  power  is  work  at  the  rate  of  33,000  foot- 
pounds a  minute,  or  550  pounds  a  second.  That  is,  if  a 
weight  of  33,000  pounds  be  raised  through  i  foot  in  i 
minute,  one  horse  power  of  w^ork  is  being  done.  This  unit 
was  arbitrarily  chosen  by  early  steam  engine  manufac- 
turers to  compare  their  engines  with  the  power  of  a  horse. 

If  a  horse  is  walking  2.5  miles  an  hour  and  exerting  a 
steady  pull  on  his  traces  of  150  pounds,  the  effective 
energy  which  he  develops  is : 

150  X  5280  X  2.5  _  ^  ^   p 
60  X  33000 

21.  A  machine  is  a  device  for  applying  work.  By  it 
motion  and  forces  are  modified  so  as  to  be  used  to  greater 
advantage.  A  machine  is  not  a  source  of  work.  In  fact, 
the  amount  of  work  imparted  to  a  machine  always  ex- 


12  FARM    MACHINERY 

ceeds  the  amount  received  from  it.  Some  work  is  used 
in  overcoming  the  friction  of  the  machine.  The  ratio  be- 
tween the  amount  of  work  received  from  a  machine  and 
the  amount  put  into  it  is  called  the  efficiency  of  the 
machine. 

22.  Simple  machines  are  the  elements  to  which  all  ma- 
chinery may  be  reduced.  A  machine  like  a  harvester, 
with  systems  of  sprockets,  gears,  and  cranks,  consists 
only  of  modifications  of  the  elements  of  machines.  These 
elements  are  six  in  number  and  are  called  (i)  the  lever, 
(2)  the  wheel  and  axle,  (3)  the  inclined  plane,  (4)  the 
screw,  (5)  the  wedge,  and  (6)  the  pulley.  These  six  may 
be  conceived  to  be  reduced  to  only  two — the  lever  and 
the  inclined  plane. 

23.  The  law  of  mechanics  holds  that  the  power  multi- 
plied by  the  distance  through  which  it  moves  is  equal  to 
the  weight  multiplied  by  the  distance  through  which  it 
moves.  Thus,  a  power  of  i  pound  moving  10  feet  equals 
10  pounds  moving  i  foot.  This  is  true  in  theory,  but  in 
practice  a  certain  amount  must  be  added  to  overcome 
friction. 

24.  The  lever,  the  simplest  of  all  machines,  is  a  bar 
or  rigid  arm  turning  about  a  pivot  called  the  fulcrum. 
The  object  to  be  moved  is  commonly  designated  as  the 
weight,  and  the  arm  on  which  it  is  placed  is  called  the 
weight  arm.  The  force  used  is  designated  as  the  power, 
and  the  arm  on  which  it  acts  is  called  the  power  arm. 
Levers  are  divided  into  three  classes ;  for  an  explanation 
of  the  classes  refer  to  any  text  on  physics.*  The  law  of 
mechanics  may  be  applied  to  all  levers  in  this  manner. 
The  power  multiplied  by  the  power  arm  equals  the  weight 
multiplied  by  the  weight  arm. 

♦"General  Physics."  By  C.  S.  Hastings  and  F.  E.  Beach  and 
Others, 


DEFINITIONS  AND  MECHANICAL  PRINCIPLES  1 3 

If  P  =  Power,  Pa  =  Power  arm,  W  =  Weight,  and  Wa  =  Weight 
arm,   P  X  Pa  =  W  X  Wa. 

If  three  of  these  quantities  are  known,  the  other  is 
easily  calculated.  The  arm  or  leverage  is  always  the 
perpendicular  distance  between  the  direction  of  the  force 
and  the  fulcrum. 

25.  The  two-horse  evener  or  doubletree. — The  two- 
horse  evener  is  a  lever  of  the  second  class  where  the  clevis 
pin  for  the  whifBetree  at  one  end  acts  as  the  fulcrum  for 


ZZ' 


43.5 


^ 


v.=#::: 


16.5' 4     1 

_ X...I... 


FIG.    2 — WAGON    EVENER    IN    OUTLINE.       SHOWING   THE    ADVANTAGE   THE 

LEADING   HORSE   HAS  WHEN  THE  CLEVIS  HOLES 

ARE  NOT  A  STRAIGHT  LINE 


the  power  applied  by  the  horse  at  the  other  end.  The 
weight  is  the  load  at  the  middle.  If  the  three  holes  for 
the  attachment  of  each  horse  and  the  load  be  in  a  straight 
line  and  the  arms  be  of  equal  length,  each  horse  pulls  an 
equal  share  of  the  load  even  if  the  evener  is  not  at  right 
angles  with  the  line  of  draft.  But  more  often  the  end 
holes  in  the  evener  are  placed  in  a  line  behind  the  hole 
for  the  center  clevis  pin.  Then  if  one  horse  permits  his 
end  of  the  evener  to  recede,  he  will  have  the  larger  portion 
of  the  load  to  pull  because  his  lever  arm  has  been  short- 


14  FARM    MACHINERY 

ened  more  than  the  lever  arm  of  the  other  horse.  The 
author's  attention  has  been  called  to  a  wagon  doubletree 
in  which  the  center  and  end  holes  for  clevis  pins  are  made 
by  iron  clips  riveted  to  the  front  and  back  sides  of  the 
wood.  The  center  hole  was  thus  placed  4%  inches  out 
of  the  line  of  the  end  holes.  This  evener  is  shown  in  out- 
line in  Fig.  2. 

By  calculation  it  was  found  that  if  one  horse  was  8 
inches  in  the  advance  of  the  other,  the  rear  horse  would 
pull  8.64  per  cent  more  than  the  first,  or  4.32  per  cent  more 
of  the  total  load.  If  this  diflference  was  16  inches,  the 
rear  horse  would  pull  19  per  cent  more  than  the  first,  or 
8  per  cent  more  of  the  total  load. 

26.  Eveners. — When  several  horses  are  hitched  to  a 
machine  as  one  team,  a  system  of  levers  is  used  to  divide 
the  load  proportionately.  The  law  of  mechanics  applies 
in  all  cases,  noting  that  the  lever  arm  is  the  perpendicular 
distance  between  the  direction  of  the  force  and  the  ful- 
crum or  pivot.  In  general,  it  may  be  said  that  there  is 
nothing  to  be  gained  by  a  complicated  evener.  If  there 
is  a  flexible  connection  and  an  equal  division  of  the  draft, 
the  simple  evener  is  as  good  as  the  complicated  or  so- 
called  "patent"  evener.  The  line  of  draft  cannot  be  offset 
without  a  force  acting  across  it.  This  is  accomplished 
with  a  tongue  truck,  which  seems  to  be  the  logical 
method. 

Fig.  3  illustrates  some  good  types  of  eveners. 

27.  Giving  one  horse  the  advantage. — It  often  occurs 
in  working  young  animals  or  horses  of  different  weights 
that  it  is  desired  to  give  one  the  advantage  in  the  share 
of  work  done.  This  is  accomplished  by  making  one 
evener  arm  longer  than  the  other,  giving  the  horse 
which  is  to  have  the  advantage  the  longer  arm.  This 
may  be  done  by  setting  out  his  clevis,  setting  in  the  clevis 


DEFINITIONS  AND  MECHANICAL  PRINCIPLES 


IS 


of  the  other  horse,  or  placing  the  center  clevis  out  toward 
the  other  horse.  The  correct  division  of  the  load  between 
horses  of  different  sizes  is  not  definitely  known,  but  it  is 


Five  Horse  Tandem. 

FIG.    3 — GOOD    TYPES    OF    EVENERS    WHICH    WILL    DIVIDE   EQUALLY 
THE  DRAFT 


thought  that  the  division  should  be  made  in  about  the 
same  proportion  as  each  horse's  weight  is  of  their  com- 
bined weight. 

28.  Inclined  plane. — The  tread  power  is  an  example  of 
the  utilization  of  the  inclined  plane,  in  which  the  plane 
is  an  endless  apron  whose  motion  is  transferred  to  a 
shaft.  The  tread  power  is  illustrated  in  Part  II.,  Farm 
Motors. 

29.  The  screw  is  a  combination  of  the  inclined  plane 


i6 


FARM    MACHINERY 


and  the  lever,  where  the  inclined  plane  is  wrapped  around 
a  cylinder  and  engages  a  nut.  The  pitch  of  a  screw  is  the 
distance  between  a  point  on  one  thread 
to  a  like  point  on  the-4iext,  or,  in  other 
words,  it  is  i  inch  divided  by  the  num- 
ber of  threads  to  the  inch.  Thus,  8 
threads  to  i  inch  is  i/8  pitch,  24  threads 
1/24  pitch.  There  is  a  great  gain  of 
power  in  the  screw  because  the  load  is 
moved  a  short  distance  compared  with 
the  power.  A  single-pitch  thread  ad- 
vances along  the  length  of  the  screw 
once  the  pitch  at  each  turn ;  a  double 
pitch  advances  twice  the  pitch.  The 
part  of  a  bolt  containing  a  screw  thread 
on  the  inside  is  spoken  of  as  a  nut. 
The  name  burr  is  often  given  to  the 
nut,  but  burr  applies  more  particu- 
larly to  washers  for  rivets.  The  tool 
used  in  making  the  thread  in  a  nut  is 
called  a  tap,  and  the  one  for  making 
outside  threads  a  die. 

30.  A  pulley  consists  primarily  of  a 
grooved  wheel  and  axle  over  which 
runs  a  cord. 

A  simple  pulley  changes  only  the  di- 
rection of  the  force.  By  a  combination 
of  pulleys  the  power  may  be  increased  indefinitely.  The 
wheel  which  carries  the  rope  is  called  a  sheave,  the  cover- 
ing and  axle  for  the  sheave  the  block,  and  the  whole  a 
pulley.  A  combination  of  blocks  and  ropes  is  called  a 
tackle.  With  the  common  tackle  block,  the  power  is 
multiplied  by  the  number  of  strands  of  rope  less  one. 
The  mechanical  advantage  may  be  obtained  in  another 


FIG.  4 — SIMPLE  PUL- 
LEY, WHICH  ONLY 
CHANGES  THE  DI- 
RECTION OF  A  FORCE 


DEFINITIONS  AND  MECHANICAL  PRINCIPLES 


17 


way,  as  it  is  equal  to  the  number  of  strands  supporting 
the  weight.  This  will  agree  with  the  former  method 
when  the  power  is  acting  downward.  If  the  power  is  act- 
ing upward  instead  of  downward,  the  power  strand  would 
be  supporting  the  weight,  and  so  should  not  be  deducted 
from  the  total  number  to  obtain  the  mechanical  advantage. 
Fig.  5  illustrates  a  tackle  which  has  six  strands,  but 


FIG.  5  A  lACKLE.  A 
FORCE  MAY  BE 
MULTIPLIED  MANY 
TIMES  BY  A  TACKLE 
OF    THIS    KIND 


FIG.  6  —  DIFFEREN- 
TIAL TACKLE  BY 
WHICH  HEAVY 
WEIGHTS  MAY  BE 
RAISED 


only  five  are  supporting  the  weight,  so  the  mechanical 
advantage  in  this  case  is  five.  If  the  weight  be  1,000 
pounds,  as  marked,  a  force  of  200  pounds  besides  a  force 
sufficient  to  overcome  friction  will  be  needed  to  raise  the 
weight.  This  tackle  has  a  special  designed  sheave  which, 
when  the  free  rope  end  is  carried  to  one  side  and  let  out 


i8 


FARM    MACHINERY 


slightly,  the  rope  is  wedged  in  a  special  groove  and  the 
weight  held  firmly  in  place. 

The  differential  pulley  shown  in  Fig.  6  is  a  very  power- 
ful device  for  raising  heavy  weights  and  is  very  simple. 
The  principle  involved  is  that  the  upper  sheaves  are  of 
different  diameters,  fastened  rigidly  together  and  en- 
gaging the  chain  in  such  a  manner  as  to  prevent  it  from 
slipping  over  them.  Thus,  as  the  sheaves  are  rotated,  one 
of  the  strands  of  chains  carrying  the  load  is  taken  up 
slightly  faster  than  the  other  is  let  out,  shortening  their 
combined  length  and  raising  the  load. 

31.  Dynamometers*  are  instruments  used  in  determin- 
ing the  force  transmitted  to  or  from  a  machine  or  imple- 


FIG.   7 — PRONY  brake:   ONE   FORM   OF  ABSORPTION   DYNAMOMETER 

ment.  They  are,  therefore,  very  important  instruments 
for  the  study  and  testing  of  machinery.  Having  deter- 
mined Avith  this  instrument  the  force,  it  is  an  easy  matter 
to  calculate  the  power. 

32.  Absorption  dynamometers  are  those  which  absorb 
the  power  in  measuring  the  force  transmitted.  The  Prony 
brake  as  illustrated  in  Fig.  7  is  the  common  device  used 

*For  additional  literature  on  the  measurement  of  power  see 
"Experimental  Engineering,"  by  R.  C.  Carpenter. 


DEFINITIONS  AND  MECHANICAL  PRINCIPLES 


19 


in  measuring  the  output  of  motors.  The  force  trans- 
mitted is  measured  by  a  pair  of  platform  scales  or  a  spring 
balance.  The  distance  through  which  this  force  acts  in  i 
minute  is  calculated  from  the  number  of  revolutions  of 
the  rotating  shaft  per  minute  and  the  distance  through 
which  the  force  would  travel  in  one  revolution  if  released. 
The  revolutions  of  the  shaft  are  obtained  by  means  of  a 
speed  indicator,  a  type  of  which  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  8. 


FIG.  8 — SPEED  indicator:  an  instrument  for  determining  the  speed 


If  7r=  ratio    between    diameter    of    circle    and    the    circumfer- 
ence =  3.1416, 
a  =^  length  of  brake  arm  in  feet, 

G  =  net   brake   load    (weight  on   scale   less   weight  of  brake 

on  scale), 
M  =  revolutions  a  minute, 
2  T^  G  a  n 


H.P. 


33000 


Dynamometers  which  do  not  absorb  the  power  are 
called  transmission  dynamometers. 

33.  Traction  dynamometers. — Dynamometers  used  in 
connection  with  farm  machinery  to  determine  the  draft 
of  implements  are  called  traction  dynamometers.  They 
are  instruments  on  the  principle  of  a  pair  of  scales  placed 
between  an  implement  and  the  horses  or  engine.  They 
indicate  the  number  of  pounds  of  draft  or  pull  required  to 
move  the  implement.  The  traction  dynamometer  is  a 
transmission  dynamometer.     The  power  is  not  all  used 


20  FARM    MACHINERY 

Up  in  the  measuring,  but  transmitted  to  the  implement 
or  machine  where  the  work  is  being  done. 

The  operation  of  the  traction  dynamometer  is  the  same 
as  that  of  a  heavy  spring  balance.  The  spring  may  be  a 
coil,  flat  or  elliptical,  or  an  oil  or  water  piston  may  be 
used  in  place  of  the  spring  and  the  pull  determined  by 
the  pressure  produced. 

34.  Direct-reading  dynamometers. — The  more  simpie 
types  of  dynamometers  have  a  convenient  scale  and  a 
needle  w^hich  indicates  the  pull  in  pounds.  A  second 
needle  is  usually  provided  which  shows  the  maximum 
pull  which  has  been  reached  during  the  test.  A  dyna- 
mometer of  this  kind  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  9.     This  has 


FIG.  9 — DIRECT-READING  DYNAMOMETER 

elliptical  springs  and  a  dial  upon  which  the  draft  is  regis- 
tered. It  is  difficult  to  obtain  accurate  readings  from  a 
dynamometer  of  this  sort  on  account  of  vibration  caused 
by  the  change  of  draft  due  to  rough  ground  or  the  un- 
steady motion  of  the  horse. 

35.  Self-recording  dynamometers. — A  recording  dyna- 
mometer records  by  a  pen  or  pencil  line  the  draft.  A 
strip  of  paper  is  passed  under  the  needle  carrying  the 
pen  point,  whose  position  is  determined  by  the  pull.  The 
height  of  the  pen  line  above  a  base  line  of  no  load  is  pro- 
portional to  the  pull  in  pounds.    A  diagram  obtained  in 


DEFINITIONS  AND  MECHANICAL  PRINCIPLES 


21 


this  way  is  shown  in  Fig.  lo.  Often  the  paper  is  ruled 
to  scale  so  that  direct  readings  may  be  made  from  the 
paper.  Methods  of  rotating  the  reel  or  spool  vary  in 
different  makes.    Some  German  dynamometers  rotate  the 


600 


ri   ■  == 

JOO   ■ 1 -. 


FIG.    10 A  RECORD   OF   DRAFT  OBTAINED  BY  A  RECORDING   DYNAMOMETER 

reel  by  a  wheel  which  runs  along  on  the  ground  and  is 
connected  to  the  reel  by  a  flexible  shaft,  as  in  Fig.  ii. 
This  method  is  very  satisfactory,  except  that  the  wheel  is 


FIG.    II — A    GERMAN    RECORDING    DYNAMOMETER    WHICH     HAS    THE    REEL 
DRIVEN    BY   A    WHEEL   TRAVELING  ON   GROUND 

often  in  the  way.  Distances  along  the  paper  are  in  this 
case  proportional  to  the  distance  passed  over  by  the  im- 
plement. 


22 


FARM    MACHINERY 


Another  method  is  to  rotate  the  reel  by  clock-work. 
Then  distances  along  the  paper  are  proportional  to  time. 


FIG.    12 — GIDDINGS    RECORDING    DYNAMOMETER,     WHICH     HAS    THE    REEL 
DRIVEN   BY   CLOCK-WORK 


If  the  velocity  be   uniform,  the   distances   are  appioxi- 
mately  proportional  to  the  distance  passed  over  as  be- 


DEFINITIONS  AND  MECHANICAL  PRINCIPLES  2^ 

fore.  When  the  distances  along  the  paper  are  propor- 
tional to  the  ground  passed  over,  the  amount  of  work 
may  be  obtained  easily.  The  Giddings  dynamometer,  as 
illustrated  in  Fig.  12,  is  made  in  this  way.  It  also  has 
elliptical  springs. 

Still  another  method  is  made  use  of  in  another  type  of 
dynamometer,  in  which  the  in-and-out  movement  of  the 
pull  head  is  made  to  rotate  the  reel.    This  method  is  not 


FIG.     13 — THE    PLANIMETER    USED    TO    FIND     THE    AVERAGE    DRAFT    FROM 

DYNAMOMETER  RECORDS.      THERE  ARE   SEVERAL  TYPES 

OF  THIS  INSTRUMENT 

SO  satisfactory  because  distances  along  the  paper  are  not 
proportional  to  anything.  If  the  draft  remains  constant, 
there  is  no  rotation  of  the  reel  at  all.  Various  devices  are 
provided  dynamometers  to  add  the  draft  for  stated 
distances,  and  in  this  way  obtain  the  work  done.  A  tape 
line  100  feet  long  is  sometimes  used  to  rotate  the  reel  of 
the  dynamometer. 

To  obtain  the  mean  draft  a  line  is  drawn  through  the 
graph  of  the  pen  point,  eliminating  the  sharp  points. 
Then  the  diagram  may  be  divided  into  any  number  of 
equal  parts  and  the  sum  of  the  draft  at  the  center  of 
these  divisions  divided  by  the  number  of  divisions.  The 
quotient  will  be  the  mean  draft. 

An  instrument  called  the  planimeter  (Fig.  13)  will  de- 


24 


FARM    MACHINERY 


termine  the  area  of  the  diagram  when  the  point  is  passed 
around  it.  To  obtain  the  mean  height  and  the  average 
draft  it  is  only  necessary  to  divide  the  area  of  the  diagram 
by  its  length.  This  can  only  be  done  when  distances 
along  the  paper  are  proportional  to  the  distance  passed 
over  by  the  implement. 

36.  Steam  and  gas  engine  indicators. — The  indicator, 
although  not  used  much  in  connection  with  farm  engines, 


FIG.   I4-T-THE  STEAM  OR  GAS   ENGINE  INDICATOR.      AN  INSTRUMENT  USED 
TO  OBTAIN  A  RECORD  OF  THE  PRESSURE  IN   TPIE  ENGINE  CYLINDER 
AT  VARIOUS   POINTS  OF  THE   STROKE 

should  be  mentioned  at  this  point  under  a  discussion  of 
the  methods  of  measuring  work. 

Fig.  14  illustrates  a  steam  engine  indicator  complete, 
and  also  a  section  of  it  showing  the  mechanism  inside.  In 
brief,  the  indicator  consists  in  a  drum,  upon  which  a  paper 
card  is  mounted  to  receive  the  record  or  diagram,  and  a 
cylinder  carefully  fitted  with  a  piston  upon  which  the 
pressures  of  the  steam  or  gases  from  the  engine  cylinder 
act.  The  drum  by  a  mechanism  called  a  reducing  motion 
is  given  a  motion  corresponding  to  that  of  the  engine 


DEFINITIONS  AND  MECHANICAL  PRINCIPLES  25 

piston,  and  the  pressure  of  the  gases  from  the  engine 
cylinder  acting  on  the  piston  of  the  indicator  compresses 
a  calibrated  spring  above.  The  amount  of  pressure  is  re- 
corded with  a  pencil  pomt  by  a  suitable  mechanism  on 
the  paper  card.  Thus  if  a  diagram  is  obtained  from  an 
engine  at  work,  it  not  only  permits  a  study  of  the  engine 

in  regard  to  the  action  of 
valves,  igniter,  etc.,  but 
also  enables  the  amount  of 
work  performed  in  the  en- 
gine cylinder  to  be  calcu- 
lated. 

FIG.   15 — AN  ACTUAL  INDICATOR  DIA- 

GRAM    OBTAINED  FROM    A   GAS   EN-  I"  Ig-    15    ShOWS   aU   aCtUal 

GiNE,  WITH  THE  SCALE  OF  THE      diagram  takcu  from  a  gas 

SPRING    APPENDED  .  .  , 

engine.  As  the  pressure 
varies  throughout  the  stroke,  an  instrument  like  the 
planimeter  of  Fig.  13  must  be  used  to  average  the  pres- 
sure for  the  entire  working  stroke  of  the  piston,  and  sub- 
tract the  pressure  required  in  the  preliminary  and  ex- 
haust strokes.  This  average  pressure  is  called  the  mean 
effective  pressure  (M.E.P.).  Knowing  the  distance  the 
engine  piston  travels  a  minute  doing  work,  the  area  of 
the  surface  on  which  the  pressure  acts,  and  the  mean  ef- 
fective pressure,  it  is  possible  to  calculate  the  rate  of 
work  or  the  horse  power.  The  horse  power  obtained  in 
this  way  is  called  the  indicated  horse  power  (I.H.P.), 
and  differs  from  the  brake  horse  power  (B.H.P.)  b}/  the 
power  required  to  overcome  friction  in  the  engine.  The 
ratio  of  the  brake  horse  power  to  the  indicated  horse 
power  is  called  the  mechanical  efficiency  of  the  engine. 

If  P  =r  Mean  effective  pressure, 
L  =  Length  of  stroke  in  feet,  ^ 
A  =  Area  of  piston  in  square  inches, 
N  =  Number  of  working  strokes  a  minute, 

I.H.P.  =  ^I:^ 


26  FARM    MACHINERY 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  in  double-acting  engines  the  faces 
of  the  piston  on  which  the  pressure  in  the  engine  cylinder 
acts  differ  by  the  area  of  the  cross  section  of  the  piston 
rod.  It  is  customary  to  calculate  the  indicated  horse 
power  for  each  end  of  the  cylinder,  and  take  the  sum  for 
the  indicated  horse  power  of  the  engine. 

37.  Heat. — Work,  as  measured  by  the  foot-pound,  is 
mechanical  energy  or  the  energy  of  motion.  Energy  is 
defined  as  the  power  to  produce  a  change  of  any  kind  and 
manifests  itself  in  many  forms.  It  may  be  transformed 
from  one  form  to  another  without  affecting  the  whole 
amount.  Heat  represents  one  form  of  energy,  and  it  is 
the  purpose  of  all  heat  engines  to  transform  this  heat 
energy  into  mechanical  energy.  Like  work,  heat  may  be 
measured.  The  unit  used  for  this  purpose  is  the  British 
thermal  unit. 

The  British  thermal  unit  (B.T.U.)  is  the  amount  of 
heat  required  to  raise  the  temperature  of  i  pound  of  water 
1°  F.  To  make  the  unit  more  specific,  the  change  of  tem- 
perature is  usually  specified  as  being  between  62°  and 
63°  F.  The  work  equivalent  of  the  British  thermal  unit 
is  sometimes  called  the  Joule  (J)  and  is  equal  to  778  foot- 
pounds of  work. 

Thermal  efficiency  is  a  term  used  in  connection  with 
heat  engines  to  represent  the  ratio  between  the  amount 
of  energy  received  from  the  engine  in  tKe  form  of  work 
and  the  amount  given  to  it  in  the  form  of  heat.  The 
thermal  efficiency  of  a  steam  engine  seldom  exceeds  15 
per  cent  and  of  a  gas  engine  30  per  cent. 

38.  Electrical  energy. — By  means  of  a  dynamo,  mechan- 
ical energy  may  be  converted  into  electrical  energy  or  the 
energy  of  an  electric  current.  An  electric  current  may 
be  likened  to  the  flow  of  water  through  a  pipe  in  that  it 
has  pressure  and  volumCr    In  the  water  pipe  the  pressure 


DEFINITIONS  AND  MECHANICAL  PRINCIPLES  2/ 

is  measured  in  pounds  to  the  square  inch,  and  the  volume 
by  the  area  of  the  cross  section'  of  the  pipe.  With  an 
electric  current  the  pressure  is  measured  in  volts  and  the 
volume  or  amount  of  current  in  amperes.  Thus  a  current 
may  have  a  pressure  or  voltage  of  no  volts  and  a  volume 
or  amperage  of  7  amperes.  The  product  of  volts  into  am- 
peres gives  Mratts.  An  electrical  current  of  746  watts  is 
equal  to  one  horse  power.  Electric  energy  is  bought  and 
sold  by  the  watt-hour,  or  the  larger  unit,  the  kilowart- 
hour,  which  is  1,000  watt-hours. 


CHAPTER  II 

TRANSMISSION  OF  POWER 

It  is  the  function  of  all  machines  to  receive  energy 
from  some  source  and  distribute  it  to  the  various  parts 
where  it  will  be  converted  into  useful  work.  This  chapter 
will  treat  of  the  devices  used  in  the  transmission  and  dis- 
tribution of  power  and  the  loss  of  power  during  trans- 
mission. 

39.  Belting. — Belting  is  one  of  the  oldest  and  most  com- 
mon devices  used  for  the  transmission  of  power  from  one 
rotating  shaft  to  another.  The  transmission  depends 
upon  the  friction  between  the  belt  and  the  pulley  face ; 
that  is,  the  belt  clings  to  the  pulley  face  and  causes  it  to 
rotate  as  the  belt  travels  around  it.  The  sides  of  a  belt, 
when  connecting  two  pulleys  and  transmitting  power,  are 
under  unequal  tension.  The  effectual  tension  or  actual 
force  transmitted  is  the  difference  between  the  tensions 
on  each  side.  The  effectual  tension  multiplied  by  the 
velocity  of  the  belt  in  feet  a  minute  will  give  the  foot- 
pounds of  work  transmitted  a  minute.  Thus  the  power 
varies  directly  with  effectual  tension  and  the  velocity  of 
the  belt. 

40.  Horse  power  of  a  leather  belt. — It  is  possible  to 
make  up  a  formula  with  the  above  quantities  to  be 
used  in  the  calculation  of  the  power  of  a  belt  or  the 
size  required  to  transmit  a  certain  power.  The  fol- 
lowing is  a  common  rule  for  single-ply  belting,  which 
assumes  an  eft'ectual  tension  of  33  pounds  an  inch  of 
width : 


TRANSMISSION   OF   POWER  29 

H.  P.  =  Horse  power, 

V  =  Velocity  in  feet  a  minute, 
w  =  Width  of  belt  in  inches. 

H.  'P.=^^ 

1000 

The  quantity  v  may  be  calculated  from  the  number  of 
revolutions  a  minute  and  the  diameter  of  the  driving 
pulley.  The  velocity  of  belts  rarely  exceeds  4,500  feet  a 
minute.  The  highest  efficiency  of  belt  transmission  is  ob- 
tained from  belting  when  there  is  no  slipping  and  little 
stretching,  and  when  the  tension  on  the  belt  does  not 
create  an  undue  pressure  on  the  bearings. 

41.  Leather  belting. — Good  leather  belting  will  last 
longer  than  any  other  when  protected  from  heat  and 
moisture.  A  good  belt  should  last  for  10  to  15  years  of 
continuous  service.  Best  results  are  obtained  when  the 
hair  or  grain  side  of  the  leather  is  run  next  to  the  pulley. 
When  the  belt  is  put  on  the  opposite  way,  the  grain  side, 
which  is  firmer  and  has  the  greater  part  of  the  strength  of 
the  belt,  is  apt  to  become  cracked  and  the  strength  of  the 
belt  much  reduced. 

42.  Care  of  leather  belts. — Belts  should  be  occasionally 
cleaned  and  oiled  to  keep  them  soft  and  pliable.  There 
are  good  dressings  upon  the  market,  and  others  that  are 
certainly  injurious.  Neatsfoot  oil  is  a  very  satisfactory 
dressing.  Mineral  oils  are  not  very  satisfactory,  as  a  rule. 
Rosin  is  considered  injurious,  and  it  is  doubtful  if  it  is 
necessary  to  use  it  on  a  belt  in  good  condition.  With 
horizontal  belts  it  is  desirable  to  have  the  under  side  the 
driving  side,  for  then  the  sag  of  the  slack  side  causes 
more  of  the  belt  to  come  in  contact  with  the  pulleys  and 
will  prevent  slippage  to  some  extent. 

43.  Rubber  belting. — Good  rubber  belting  is  of  perfect 
uniformity  in  width  and  thickness  and  will  resist  a  greater 
degree  of  heat  and  cold  than  leather.    It  is  especially  well 


30  FARM    MACHINERY 

adapted  to  wet  places  and  where  it  will  be  exposed  to 
the  action  of  steam.  Rubber  belting,  which  clings  well  to 
the  pulley,  is  less  apt  to  slip  and  may  be  called  upon  to 
do  very  heavy  service.  Although  not  as  durable  as 
leather,  it  is  quite  strong,  but  offers  a  little  difficulty  in 
the  making  of  splices.  Rubber  belting  is  made  from  two- 
ply  to  eight-ply  in  thickness.  A  four-ply  belt  is  consid- 
ered the  equal  of  a  single-ply  leather  belt  in  the  trans- 
mission of  power.  All  oil  and  grease  must  be  kept  away 
from  rubber  belting. 

44.  Canvas  belting  is  used  extensively  for  the  trans- 
mission of  power  supplied  by  portable  and  traction  en- 
gines. It  is  very  strong  and  durable,  and  is  especially 
well  adapted  to  withstand  hard  service.  When  used  in 
the  field  it  is  usually  made  into  endless  belts.  It  has  one 
characteristic  which  bars  its  extended  use  between  pul- 
leys at  a  fixed  distance,  and  that  is  its  stretching  and  con- 
tracting, due  to  moisture  changes.  Canvas  belting,  like 
rubber  belting,  is  niaae  in  various  thicknesses  from  two- 
ply  up.  A  four-ply  belt  is  usually  considered  the  equal  of 
a  single  leather  belt. 

45.  Length  of  belts. — Length  of  belts  is  usually  deter- 
mined after  the  pulleys  are  in  place  by  wrapping  a  tape 
line  around  the  pulleys.  When  this  cannot  be  done  con- 
veniently, the  following  approximate  rule  taken  from 
Kent's  Mechanical  Engineer's  Pocketbook  may  be 
used :  "Add  the  diameter  of  the  two  pulleys,  divide  by 
two,  and  multiply  the  quotient  by  3^,  and  add  the 
product  to  twice  the  distance  between  the  centers  of  the 
shafts." 

46.  Lacing  of  belts. — Lacing  with  a  rawhide  thong  is 
the  common  method  used  in  connecting  the  ends  of  a  belt. 
A  laced  belt  should  run  noiselessly  over  the  pulleys  and 
should  be. as  pliable  as  any  part  of  the  belt.     The  holes 


TRANSMISSION    OF   TOWER 


31 


H-f+l 


should  be  at  least  five-eighths  inches  from  the  edge  and 
should  be  placed  directly  opposite.  An  oval  punch  is  the 
best,  making  the  long  diameter  of  the  hole  parallel  with 
the  belt.  With  narrow  belts  only  a  single  row  of  holes 
need  be  punched,  but  with  wide  belts  it  is  necessary  to 
punch  a  double  row  of  holes. 

By  oiling  or  wetting  the  end  of  the  lace  and  then  burn- 
ing to  a  crisp  with  a  match  the  lacing  may  be  performed 

more  easily.  Begin  lacing  at 
the  center  of  the  belt  and  never 
cross  or  twist  the  lace  or  have 
more  than  two  thicknesses  of 
lace  on  the  pulley  side  of  the 
belt.  In  lacing  canvas  belts, 
the  holes  should  be  made  with 
a  belt  awl.  When  the  lacing  is 
finished  the  lace  may  be  pulled 
through  a  small  extra  hole  and 
then  cut  so  as  to  catch  over 
the  edge.  By  this  method,  ty- 
ing of  the  lace  is  avoided.  Fig. 
16  illustrates  four  good  meth- 
ods of  lacing  a  belt  with  a 
thong. 

I  shows  a  method  of  lacing 
a  belt  with  a  single  row  of 
holes. 

2  shows  a  light  hinge  lace  for  a  belt  to  run  around 
an  idler. 

3  shows  a  double  row  lace. 

4  shows  a  heavy  hinge  lace. 

47.  Wire  belt  lacing  makes  a  very  good  splice.  The 
splice  when  properly  made  is  smooth  and  well  adapted 
for  leather  and  canvas  belting.    When  this  lacing  is  used, 


Www 

5 

mm 

^l^iP^hU 

4 

jAjjAjp%Aft 

VwKr 

fllT|iTpt|1? 

FIG.  16 — FOUR  GOOD  STYLES 
OF  BELT  LACING 


32 


FARM    MACHINERY 


the  holes  should  be  made  with  a  small  punch,  the  thick- 
ness of  the  belt  from  the  edge  and  twice  the  thickness 
apart.  The  lacing  should  not  be  crossed  on  the  pulley- 
side  of  the  belt. 

48.  Pulleys. — Pulleys  are  made  of  wood,  cast  iron,  and 
steel.  They  are  also  constructed  solid  or  in  one  piece 
and  divided  into  halves.  It  is  best  to  have  a  large  cast 
pulley  divided,  as  the  large  solid  pulley  is  often  weakened 
by  contraction  in  cooling  after  being  cast.  For  most 
purposes  the  iron  pulley  is  the  most  satisfactory,  as  it  is 

neat  and  durable.     Belts  do  not  cling  to 

iron  pulleys  well,  and  hence  they  are  often 
covered  with  leather  to  increase  their  driv- 
ing power.  Often  the  driving  power  is  in- 
creased one-fourth  in  this  way. 

Pulle3^s  are  crowned  or  have  an  oval  face 
in  order  to  keep  the  belt  in  the  center.  The 
tendency  of  the  belt  is  to  run  to  the  highest 
point,  as  shown  in  Fig.  17.  The  pulley  that 
imparts  motion  to  the  belt  is  called  the 
driver  and  the  one  that  receives  its  motion 
from  the  belt  the  driven. 

49.  Rules  for  calculating  speed  of  pul- 
leys.— Case  I.  The  diameters  of  the  driver 
and  driven  and  the  revolutions  per  minute 
of  the  driver  being  given,  to  find  the  number  of  revolu- 
tions per  minute  of  the  driven.  Rule :  Multiply  the 
diameter  of  the  driver  by  its  r.p.m.  and  divide  the  product 
by  the  diameter  of  the  driven;  the  quotient  will  be  the 
r.p.m.  of  the  driven. 

Case  II.  The  diameter  and  the  revolutions  per  minute 
of  the  driver  being  given,  to  find  the  diameter  of  the 
driven  that  shall  make  any  given  number  of  revolutions 


\ 


FIG.     17 — SHOW- 
ING   THE 
EFFECT  OF 
CROWN    ON 
PULLEYS 


TRANSMISSION    OF   POWER 


33 


FIG.    l8 — MALLEABLE  LINK  BELTING 
OF  ROTATING  SHAFTS 


per  minute.  Rule :  Multiply  the  diameter  of  the  driver 
by  its  r.p.m.  and  divide  the  product  by  the  r.p.m.  of  the 
driven ;  the  quotient  will  be  its  diameter. 

Case  III.  To  ascertain  the  size  of  the  driver.  Rule: 
Multiply  the  diameter  of  the  driven  by  the  r.p.m.  de- 
sired that  it  should 
make  and  divide  the 
product  by  the  revolu- 
tions of  the  driver;  the 
quotient  will  be  the  size 
of  the  driver. 

No  allowance  is  made 
in  the  above  rules  for 
slip. 

50.  Link  belting. — A 
condmon  means  of  distributing  power  to  various  parts  of 
a  machine  is  by  link  belting-.  Chain  link  belting  is 
adapted  to  almost  all  purposes  except  high  speed.  Two 
kinds  of  link  belting  are  now  found  in  general  use.  One 
'Style  is  made  of  malle- 
able iron  links  (Fig. 
18)  and  the  other 
crimped  steel  (Fig.  19). 
In  regard  to  the  desira- 
bility of  each,  data  is 
not  at  hand.  However, 
it  is  stated  that  the  steel 
links  wear  longer,  but  ^'^-  iQ-steel  link  belting 

cause  the  sprockets  to  wear  faster.  If  this  be  true,  the 
steel  belting  should  be  used  on  large  sprockets  and  the 
malleable  confined  to  the  smaller  sprockets. 

51.  Rope  transmission  often  has  many  advantages  over 
belt  transmission  in  that  the  first  cost  of  installation  is 


34 


FARM    MACHINERY 


i 


less,  less  power  is   lost 
by  slippage,  and  the  di- 
rection   of    transmission 
may  be  easily  changed. 
Transmission   ropes   are 
made   of   hemp,    manila, 
and  cotton.    Cotton  rope 
is  not  as  strong  as  the 
others,  but  is  much  more 
durable,  especially  when 
run  over  small  pulleys  or  sheaves.     The 
groove  of  the  pulley  or  sheaves  should  be 
of  such  a  size  and  shape  as  to  cause  the 
rope  to  wedge  into  it,  thus  permitting  the 
effective  tension  of  rope  to  be  increased  to 
its  working  strength. 

Fig.  20  illustrates  a  rope  transmission 
system.  Transmission  ropes,  to  insure  the 
highest  efficiency  in  respect  to  the  amount 
of  power  transmitted  and  the  durability  of 
the  ropes,  should  have  a  velocity  of  from 
3,000  to  4,000  feet  a  minute.  To  lubricate 
the  surface  of  the  rope  and  prevent  it  from 
fraying,  a  mixture  of  beeswax  and  graphite 
is  good. 

52.  Wire  rope  or  cable  transmission. — 
For  transmission  of  power  to  a  distance 
and  between  buildings,  wire  rope  has  many 
advantages.  If  the  distance  of  transmis- 
sion be  over  500  feet,  relay  stations  with 
idler  pulleys  should  be  installed  to  carry 
the  rope.  Pulleys  or  sheaves  for  wire  rope 
should  not  have  grooves  into  which  the 
rope  may  wedge,  as  this  is  very  detrimental 


FIG.  20 — TRANS- 
MISSION  OF 
POWER  BY  ROPES 


TRANSMISSION    OF   POWER 


35 


to  the  durability  of  the  rope.  The  sheaves  for  wire  rope 
should  have  grooves  filled  with  rubber,  wood,  or  other 
material  to  give  greater  adhesion. 

Fig.  21  illustrates  how  a  wire  rope  may  be  used  to 
transmit  power  between  buildings.     For  tables  useful  in 


FIG.  21 — TRANSMISSION  OF  POWER   BY   A   WIRE  ROPE 


determining  the  size  of  rope  required  for  a  rope  trans- 
mission, see  any  engineering  handbook.  They  require 
too  much  space  to  be  included  in  this  work.* 

53.  Rope  splice. — To  splice  a  rope  the  ends  should  be 


FIG.  22 — METHOD  OF  SPLICING   A  ROPE 


cut  off  square  and  the  strands  unbraided  for  not  less  than 
2^  feet  and  crotched  together  as  shown  at  i  in  Fig.  22. 
After  the  strands  of  one  end  are  placed  between  the 
strands  of  the  other,   untwist  one  strand  as  at  C  and 

*"  Mechanical  Engineers'  Pocket  Book."     By  William  Kent. 


36 


FARM    MACHINERY 


wind  the  corresponding  strand  of  the  other  rope  end  into 
its  place  until  about  9  to  12  inches  remain.  After  this  is 
done,  the  strand  should  be  looped  under  the  other,  form- 
ing the  knot  shown  at  B,  with  the  strand  following  the 
same  direction  as  the  other  strands  of  the  rope.  Another 
strand  is  now  unwound  in  the  opposite  direction  and  the 
same  kind  of  knot  formed.  The  long  ends  of  the  un- 
wound strands  are  cut  to  the  same  length  as  the  short 
ones,  and  the  short  ends  woven  into  the  rope  by  passing 
over  the  adjacent  strand  and  under  the  next,  and  so  on. 
This  is  continued  until  the  end  of  the  strand  is  com- 
pletely woven  into  the  rope.    The  same  operation  is  fol- 


FIG.  23 — THE  TRANSMISSION  OF  THE  POWER  OF  A   WINDMILL  TO   A  PUMP 
AT  A  DISTANCE  BY  MEANS  OF  TRIANGLES   AND  WIRES 


lowed  with  all  of  the  strands  until  a  smooth  splice  is  ob- 
tained. The  above  directions  apply  well  for  splicing 
ropes  used  with  haying  machinery.  The  same  method 
may  be  used  with  transmission  rope,  although  with  the 
latter  the  splice  is  often  made  much  longer. 

54.  Triangles. — A  very  handy  method  of  transmitting 
the  power  of  a  windmill  to  a  pump  at  a  distance  is  by 
means  of  triangles,  as  illustrated  in  Fig.  23.  These  tri- 
angles are  attached  to  each  other  by  common  wire,  and, 
if  the  distance  is  great,  stations  with  rocker  arms  are 
provided  to  carry  the  wires.  When  triangles  are  used  to 
connect  a  windmill  to  a  pump  the  wires  are  often  crossed 


TRANSMISSION   OF   POWER  37 

in  order  that  the  up  stroke  of  the  pump  will  be  made  with 
the  up  stroke  of  the  windmill. 

55.  Gearing. — Spur  gears  are  wheels  with  the  teeth 
or  cogs  ranged  around  the  outer  or  inner  surface  of  the 
rim  in  the  direction  of  radii  from  the  center,  and  their 
action  is  that  of  two  cylinders  rolling  together.  To  trans- 
mit uniform  motion,  each  tooth  must  conform  to  a  definite 
profile  designed  for  that  particular  gear  or  set  of  gear 
wheels.  The  two  curves  to  which  this  profile  may  be 
constructed  are  the  involute  and  the  cycloid.  Gear  wheels 
must  remain  at  a  fixed  distance  from  each  other,  or  the 
teeth  will  not  mesh  properly. 

Fig.  24  illustrates  some  of  the  common  terms  used  in 
connection   with  gear  wheels.     Bevel  gears  have  teeth 


400ENDOM  CmOC. 

PITCH  cwat 

ROOT  ClftCLL , 


FIG,   24 — SPUR  GEARING 

similar  to  spur  gears,  and  their  action  is  like  that  of  two 
cones  rolling  together. 

The  teeth  of  gear  wheels  are  cast  or  machine  cut. 
Most  of  the  gear  wheels  found  on  agricultural  machines 
have  the  teeth  simply  cast,  as  this  is  the  cheaper  method 
of  construction.  Where  smoothness  of  running  is  de- 
sired, the  teeth  are  machined  in,  and  the  form  of  each 
tooth  is  more  perfect,  insuring  smoother  action.     Th** 


38  FARM    MACHINERY 

cream  separator  has  machine-cut  gears.  Very  large  gear 
wheels  have  each  tooth  inserted  in  a  groove  in  the  gear 
wheel  rim.  Such  a  tooth  is  called  a  cog;  hence  the  term 
cog  is  often  applied  to  all  forms  of  the  gear  tooth.  Cogs 
may  be  made  of  metal  or  wood. 

Like  pulleys,  gear  wheels  are  spoken  of  as  the  driver 
and  the  driven.  To  find  the  speed  ratio  of  gear  wheels, 
the  following  rule  may  be  used : 

Rule :  Revolution  of  driver  per  minute,  multiplied  by 
the  number  of  teeth  in  driver,  equals  the  revolution  of  the 
driven  per  minute,  multiplied  by  the  number  of  teeth  in 
driven. 

56.  Shafting. — Where  several  machines  are  to  be 
operated  from  one  power  unit,  it  is  necessary  to  provide 
shafting  on  which  pulleys  are  placed.  Shafting  should 
be  supported  by  a  hanger  at  least  every  8  feet,  and  the 
pulleys  placed  as  near  as  possible  to  the  hangers.  Thurs- 
ton gives  the  following  formula  for  cold-rolled  iron  shaft- 
ing: 


H.  P. 


55 


when  H.P.  is  the  horse  power  transmitted,  d  is  the 
diameter  of  shaft  in  inches,  R  the  revolutions  per  min- 
ute. Steel  shafting  will  transmit  somewhat  more  power 
than  iron,  and  some  difterence  may  be  made  for  the  way 
the  power  is  taken  from  the  shaft;  but  the  above  rule  is 
considered  a  safe  average. 

57.  Friction. — It  has  been  stated  that  a  machine  will 
not  deliver  as  much  energy  as  it  receives  because  a  cer- 
tain amount  must  be  used  to  overcome  friction.  Friction 
is  the  resistance  met  with  when  one  surface  slides  over 
another.  Since  machines  are  made  of  moving  parts, 
friction  must  be  encountered  continually.  In  the  majority 
of  cases  it  is  desired  to  keep  friction  to  a  minimum,  but  in 


TRANSMISSION    OF   POWER  39 

others  it  is  required.  In  the  case  of  transmission  of 
power  by  belting  it  is  absolutely  necessary. 

58.  Coefficient  of  friction  is  the  ratio  between  the  force 
tending  to  bring  two  surfaces  into  close  contact  and  the 
force  required  to  slide  the  surfaces  over  each  other.  This 
force  is  always  greater  at  the  moment  sliding  begins. 
Hence  it  is  said  that  friction  of  rest  is  greater  than  sliding 
friction. 

The  following  table  of  coefficients  of  friction  is  given 
to  show  the  eftect  of  lubrication  (Enc.  Brit.)  : 

Wood  on  wood,  dry 0.25  to  0.5 

"        ''        "       soaped 0.2 

Metals  on  oak,  dry 0.25  to  0.6 

'■         "      '•      wet 0.24  to  0.26 

"      "      soaped 0.2 

"        "    metal,    dry 0.15  to  0.2 

"         "        "        wet 0.3 

Smooth  surfaces  occasionally  lubricated....  0.07  to  0.08 
"  '*         thoroughly  '  0.03  to  0.036 


FIG.    25 — ROLLER  BEARINGS   AS   APPLIED  TO  A    MOWER 

-59.  Rolling  friction. — When  a  body  is  rolled  over  a 
sr-rface  a  certain  amount  of  resistance  is  oflfered.  This 
resistance  is  termed  rolling  friction.  Rolling  friction  is 
due  to  a  slight  compression  or  indentation  of  the  surfaces 
under  the  load,  hence  is  much  less  with  hard  surfaces 


40  FARM    MACHINERY 

than  with  soft.  Rolling  friction  is  that  met  with  in  ball 
and  roller  bearings,  and  is  much  less  than  sliding  friction. 
Roller  bearings  reduce  friction  greatly.  Ball  bearings 
may  be  used  advantageously  when  end  thrust  is  to  be 
overcome  or  where  they  can  be  used  in  pairs.  They  are 
not  suitable  for  carrying  heavy  loads. 

60.  Lubrication. — The  object  of  lubrication  is  to  reduce 
friction  to  a  minimum.  A  small  quantity  of  oil  is  placed 
in  a  box  and  a  thin  film  adheres  both  to  the  surface  of 
the  journal  and  also  to  the  bearing,  so  in  reality  the 
friction  takes  place  between  liquid  surfaces.  The  lubri- 
cant also  fills  the  unevenness  of  the  surfaces,  so  that  there 
is  no  interlocking  of  the  particles  that  compose  them. 
Friction  with  a  lubricant  varies  greatly  with  the  quality 
of  lubricant  and  the  temperature. 

61.  Choice  of  lubricant. — For  heavy  pressures  the  lubri- 
cant should  be  thick  so  as  to  resist  being  squeezed  out 
under  the  load,  while  for  light  pressures  thin  oil  should 
be  used  so  that  its  viscosity  will  not  add  to  the  friction. 
Thus,  for  a  wagon,  heavy  grease  should  be  used,  while 
for  a  cream  separator  of  high  speed  a  thin  oil  is  necessary. 
Temperature  must  also  be  taken  into  account  in  choosing 
a  lubricant. 

Solid  substances  in  a  finely  divided  state,  such  as  mica 
and  graphite,  are  used  to  reduce  friction.  The  practice 
seems  to  be  a  very  good  one.  This  is  especially  true  with 
graphite  in  bearings  that  can  be  oiled  only  occasionally, 
as  the  bearings  of  a  windmill. 

62.  Bearings  should  be  of  sufficient  size  that  the  lubri- 
cant will  not  be  squeezed  out  from  between  the  journal 
and  the  bearing.  In  the  design  of  machinery  a  certain 
pressure  limit  must  not  be  exceeded.  *It  is  better  to  have 
the  journal  and  bearing  made  out  of  different  materials, 
as  the  friction  in  this  case  is  less  and  there  is  a  less  ten- 


J 


TRANSMISSION    OF   POWER 


41 


dency  for  the  surfaces  to  abrade.  Brass,  bronze,  and 
babbit  are  used  for  bearings  with  a  steel  journal.  It  is 
highly  essential  that  the  bearing  be  kept  free  from  all 
dirt  and  grit.  Occasionally  it  is  better  to  let  some  minor 
bearings  go  entirely  without  lubrication,  for  the  oil  only 


FIG.    26 — A    SELF-OILING    AND    SELF-ALIGNING   BEARING.      OFTEN   THE   OIL 

RESERVOIR  BELOW  THE  RINGS   IS  ENLARGED  AND  THE 

WICK  DISPENSED  WITH 


causes  the  gathering  of  grit  and  sand  to  grind  out  the 
bearing. 

63.  Heating  of  boxes  may  be  due  to  (i)  insufficient 
lubrication,  (2)  dirt  or  grit,  (3)  the  cap  may  be  screwed 
down  too  tight,  (4)  the  box  may  be  out  of  line  and  the 
shaft  may  bind,  (5)  the  collar  or  the  pulley  bears  too 
hard  on  the  end,  or  (6)  the  belt  may  be  too  tight. 

Self-oiling  boxes  are  very  desirable  where  they  can  be 


42  FARM    MACHINERY 

used,  as  they  have  a  supply  of  oil  which  is  carried  up  to 
the  top  of  the  shaft  by  a  chain  or  ring.  It  is  necessary 
to  replenish  the  supply  of  oil  only  at  rather  long  inter- 
vals. 

64.  Electrical  transmission.* — Pov^er  may  be  trans- 
mitted by  converting  mechanical  energy  into  electrical 
energy  by  the  dynamo,  and  after  transmission  to  a  dis- 
tance be  converted  into  mechanical  energy  again  by  the 
electric  motor.  This  form  of  transmission  has  many  ad- 
vantages where  the  electric  current  is  obtained  from  a 
large  central  station,  and  no  doubt  will  be  an  important 
form  of  transmission  to  the  farmer  of  the  future,  as 
electric  systems  are  spread  over  the  country  for  various 
purposes. 

*See  Chapter  XXIL,  Part  II. 


CHAPTER  III 
MATERIALS  AND  THE  STRENGTH   OF  MATERIALS 

A  knowledge  of  the  materials  used  in  the  construction 
of  farm  machinery  and  the  strength  of  these  materials 
will  be  helpful  in  the  study  of  farm  machinery. 

65.  Wood. — At  one  time  farm  machinery  was  con- 
structed almost  entirely  with  wooden  framework,  but 
owing  to  the  increase  in  the  cost  of  timber  and  the  re- 
duction in  the  cost  of  iron  and  steel,  it  has  been  super- 
seded largely  by  the  latter.  Progress  in  the  art  of  work- 
ing iron  and  steel,  making  it  more  desirable  for  many 
purposes,  has  also  been  a  factor  in  bringing  about  the  sub- 
stitution of  iron  and  steel  for  wood.  The  woods  chiefly 
used  in  the  construction  of  farm  machinery  are  hickory, 
oak,  ash,  maple,  beech,  poplar,  and  pine.  It  is  not  possi- 
ble to  discuss  to  any  length  the  properties  of  these  woods. 
The  wood  used  in  the  construction  of  machinery  must  be 
of  the  very  best,  for  there  is  no  use  to  which  wood  may 
be  put  where  the  service  is  more  exacting  or  severe. 
Wood  used  in  farm  machinery  must  be  heartwood  and 
cut  from  matured  trees.  It  should  be  dry  and  well  sea- 
soned, and  protected  by  paint  or  some  other  protective 
coating.  Moisture  causes  wood  to  swell,  and  for  this 
reason  it  is  difficult  to  keep  joints  made  of  iron  and  wood 
tight,  for  the  iron  will  not  shrink  with  the  wood. 

Excessive  moisture  in  wood  greatly  reduces  its 
strength,  and  wood  subjected  to  alternate  dryings  and 
wettings  is  sure  to  check  and  crack.  Wood  is  especially 
well  adapted  to  parts  subject  to  shocks  and  vibrations,  as 


44  FARM    MACHir  2RY 

the  pitman  of  a  mower.  Iron,  and  especially  steel,  when 
subjected  to  shocks  tends  to  become  crystallized.  This 
reduces  its  strength  very  much. 

66.  Cast  iron  is  used  for  the  larger  castings  and  most 
of  the  gears  used  in  farm  machines.  At  one  time  cast  iron 
was  used  to  a  larger  extent  than  at  the  present  time,  as 
it  is  being  superseded  by  stronger  but  more  expensive 
materials!  Cast  iron  is  of  a  crystalline  structure  and  can-  " 
not  be  forged  or  have  its  shape  changed  in  any  other  way 
than  by  the  cutting  away  of  certain  portions  witlf 
machine  tools.  Cast  iron  has  a  high  carbon  content,  buP 
the  carbon  is  held  much  as  a  mechanical  mixture  rather 
than  in  a  chemical  combination. 

67.  Gray  iron  is  the  name  applied  to  the  softer  and 
tougher  grade  of  cast  iron,  which  is  easily  worked  by 
tools ;  and  white  iron  to  a  very  hard  and  brittle  grade. 
White  iron  is  used  for  pieces  where  there  are  no  changes 
to  be  made  after  casting. 

68.  Chilled  iron. — When  it  is  desired  to  have  a  very 
hard  surface  to  a  casting,  as  the  face  of  a  plow,  the  in- 
side of  a  wheel  box,  or  other  surfaces  subjected  to  great 
wear,  the  iron  is  chilled  when  cast  by  having  the  molten 
iron  come  in  contact  with  a  portion  of  the  mold  made 
up  of  heavy' iron,  which  rapidly  absorbs  the  heat.  Chilled 
iron  is  exceedingly  hard. 

69.  Malleable  iron  is  cast  iron  which  has  been  annealed 
and  perhaps  deprived  of  some  of  its  carbon,  changing  it 
from  a  hard,  brittle  material  to  a  soft,  tough,  and  some- 
what ductile  metal.  The  process  of  decarbonation  usually 
consists  in  packing  castings  with  some  decarbonizing 
agent,  as  oxide  of  iron,  and  baking  in  a  furnace  at  a  high 
temperature  for  some  time.  Malleable  iron  is  much 
more  expensive  and  more  reliable  than  common  cast 
iron. 


MATERIALS   AND   THE  STRENGTH   OF   MATERIALS  45 

70.  Cast  Steel. — The  term  cast  steel,  as  usually  applied 
to  the  material  used  in  the  construction  of  gears,  etc.,  is 
cast  iron  which  has  been  deprived_^of  some  of  its  carbon 
belore  beirigcasT 

'^T.  jmyj^nd  KpRRPTTipr  steel. — It  is  from  this  material 
that  agricultural  machinery  is  largely  constructed.  The 
hardness  and  stiffness  of  Bessemer  steel  varies  and  de- 
pends largely  upon  the  carbon  content^.  Steel  with  a  high 
per  ceni  ol  carbon  (0.17  per  cent)  is  spoken  of  as  a  high- 
carbon  steel,  and  "steel  with  a  low  per  cent  (0.09  per  cent) 
low-carbon  steel.    Bessemer  steel  is  difficult  to  weld. 

72.  Wrought  iron. — Wrought  iron  is  nearly  pure  iron, 
and  is  not  as  strong  nor  as  stiff  as  mild  steel,  but  can  be 
welded  with  greater  ease. 

73.  Tool  steel  is  a  high-carbon  steel  made  by  carbon- 
izing wrought  iron,  and  owing  to  the  carbon  content  may 
be  hardened  by  heating  and  suddenly  cooling.  Tool  steel 
is  used  for  all  places  where  cutting  edges  are  needed. 


FIG.    27 — DRAWING    ILLUSTRATING    THE    CONSTRUCTION    OF     SOFT-CENTER 

STEEL 

74.  Soft-center  steel,  used  in  tillage  machinery,  is  made 
up  of  a  layer  of  soft  steel  with  a  layer  of  high-carbon 
steel  on  each  side.  The  high-carbon  steel  may  be  made 
glass  hard,  yet  the  soft  center  will  support  the  surface 
and  prevent  breakage.  In  making  soft-center  steel,  a  slab 
of  high-carbon  steel  is  welded  to  each  side  of  a  soft  steel 


46  FARM    MACHINERY 

slab  and  the  whole  rolled  into  plates  (Fig.  27).  A  soft- 
center  steel  may  be  made  by  carbonizing  a  plate  of  mild 
steel  by  a  process  much  the  reverse  of  malleable  making. 

STRENGTH  OF  MATERIALS 

All  materials  used  in  construction  resist  a  stress  or  a 
force  tending  to  change  their  form.  Stresses  act  in  three 
ways:  (i)  tension,  tending  to  stretch;  (2)  compression, 
tending  to  shorten ;  and  (3)  shear,  tending  to  slide  one 
portion  over  another. 

75.  Tension. — Material  subjected  to  a  stress  tending  to 
stretch  it,  as  a  rope  supporting  a  weight,  is  said  to  be 
under  tension,  and  the  stress  to  the  square  inch  of  the 
cross  section  required  to  break  it  is  its  tensile  strength. 

76.  Compression.  —  Material  is  under  compression 
where  the  stress  tends  to  crush  it.  The  stress  to  the 
square  inch  required  to  crush  a  material  is  its  compressive 
strength. 

77.  Shear. — The  shearing  strength  of  a  material  is  the 
resistance  to  the  square  inch  of  cross  section  required  to 
slide  one  portion  of  the  material  over  the  other. 

78.  Transverse  strength  of  materials. — When  a  beam 
is  supported  rigidly  at  one  end  and  loaded  at  the  other, 
as  in  Fig.  28,  the  material  of  the  under  side  of  the  beam 
is  under  a  compressive  stress,  and  that  of  the  upper  part 
is  subjected  to  a  tensile  stress.  The  property  of  materials 
to  resist  such  stresses  is  termed  their  transverse  strength. 

79.  Maximum  bending  moment  (B.M.)  is  a  measure 
of  the  stress  tending  to  produce  rupture  in  a  beam,  and 
for  a  cantilever  beam  (i.  e.,  one  supported  rigidly  at  one 
end.  Fig.  28)  is  equal  to  the  load  times  the  length  of  the 
beam  (W  X  L).  The  maximum  bending  moment  de- 
pends upon  the  way  a  beam  is  loaded  and  supported ; 
thus  with  a  simple  beam  loaded  at  the  center  and  sup- 


MATERIALS  AND  THE  STRENGTH  OF  MATERIALS 


47 


ported  at  both  ends  the  bending  moment  is  one-half  the 
weight  one-half  times  the  length. 

The  maximum  bending  moment  for  the  cantilever 
beam  of  Fig.  28  is  at  the  point  where  it  is  supported.  If 
the  beam  be  of  a  uniform  cross  section,  it  will  rupture  at 
this   point  before   it  will   at   any   other.     The  bending 


ooMPcaesaioN 


FIG.  28 — A  CANTILEVER  BEAM 


moment  in  the  beam  at  hand  grows  less  as  the  distance 
from  the  weight  becomes  less.  As  the  bending  moment 
becomes  less,  less  material  is  needed  to  resist  it,  and 
hence  a  beam  may  be  designed  of  such  a  section  as  to 
be  of  equal  strength  at  all  points,  or  it  is  what  is  called 
a  beam  of  uniform  strength. 

Much  material  may  be  saved  by  placing  it  where  most 
needed.  The  location  as  well  as  the  value  of  the  maxi- 
mum bending  moment  depends  upon  the  way  the  beam  is 
loaded. 

80.  Modulus  of  rupture  (M.R.). — It  is  seldom  that  a 
material  has  a  tensile  strength  equal  to  its  strength  to 


48 


FARM    MACHINERY 


resist  compression,  so  neither  of  these  may  be  used  for 
transverse  stresses.  The  modulus  of  rupture  is  a  measure 
of  the  transverse  stresses  necessary  to  produce  rupture 


t^^:^ 


© 


-b— 

1 

i 

SI 

FIG.  20 — BEAMS  OF  UNIFORM  STRENGTH 


FIG.  30 


and  is  determined  experimentally.  It  is  usually  a  quan- 
tity lying  between  the  compressive  and  tensile  strengths 
of  the  material. 

8i.  Section  modulus  (S.M.)  is  the  quantity  represent- 
ing the  ability  of  the  beam  to  resist  transverse  stresses. 
It  has  been  noticed  by  all  that  a  plank  v^ill  support  a 
greater  load  on  the  edge  than  on  the  flat.  For  a  rectan- 
gular cross  section,  Fig.  30,  if  /i  =  depth  in  inches  and 
h  =■  breadth  in  inches,  the  section  modulus  is 


6 


that  is,  the  strength  of  a  rectangular  beam  is  propor- 
t.onaI  to  its  breadth  and  to  the  square  of  its  depth. 


MATERIALS   AND  THE  STRENGTH   OF   MATERIALS 


49 


When  a  beam  is  loaded  to  its  limit,  bending  moment  = 
section  modulus  X  modulus  of  rupture. 

This  is  a  general  equation  which  applies  to  all  beams. 

82.  Factor  of  safety. — In  the  design  of  machinery  it  is 
customary  to  make  the  parts  several  times  as  strong  as 
would  be  needed  to  carry  normal  loads.  The  number 
of  times  a  piece  is  made  stronger  than  necessary  simply 
to  carry  the  load  is  called  the  factor  of  safety,  and  in 
farm  machine  design  it  varies  from  3  to  12. 

For  a  more  complete  discussion  of  this  subject  see  any 
work  on  mechanics  of  materials. 


AVERAGE    STRENGTH    OF    MATERIAL    PER    SQUARE    INCH 


Material 


Hickory 

Oak 

White  pine. . . 
Yellow  pine, . 

Cast  iron 

Steel 

Wrought  iron 


Tensile 
strength 


18,000 
60.000 
50,000 


Compressive 
Strength 


9,000 

8,500 

5,400 

8,000 

80,000 

52,000 

48,000 


Modulus  of 
Rupture 


15,000 
13,000 
7,900 
10,000 
45.000 
55.000 
48,000 


Values  for  the  strength  of  timber  were  obtained  from 
U.  S.  Forestry  Circular  No.  15.  If  the  load  or  stress  be 
continued  for  a  long  time  the  ultimate  strength  of  timber 
will  be  only  about  one-half  the  above  and  for  this  reason 
much  lower  values  are  often  given  in  architects'  hand- 
books. 

For  a  more  complete  table  see  any  engineers'  hand- 
book.* 


♦"Architects'   and   Builders'    Pocket-Book."     By    F.    E.   Kidder. 
'Materials  of  Construction."     By  J.  B.  Johnson. 


50  FARM    MACHINERY 

Problem :  Find  the  safe  load  on  an  oak  doubletree  4 
feet  long,  4  inches  wide,  2  inches  thick.  Factor  of 
safety  =  6. 

Let  L  =z  length  in  inches,  W  =z  load  in  pounds,  b  —  thickness, 
d  =  width  in  inches. 

Bending  moment  —  %  WL  =  ^  IV ^^  —  12W. 

Section  modulus  =  -^  —      ^^  ^^ =  5-333. 

Modulus  of  rupture  for  oak  =13,000. 

„      ,.  Sect.  Mod.  X  Mod.  of  Rupt. 

Bendmg  moment  =. Factor  of  Safety 

,3^^5-333Xi3>ooo 

6 
W  =  g63  pounds.    (Ans.) 


CHAPTER  IV 

TILLAGE  MACHINERY 

83.  Object  of  tillage. — Agricultural  implements  and 
machines  used  in  preparing  the  soil  for  the  seeding  or 
growth  of  crops  may  be  classed  as  tillage  machinery. 
Tillage  is  the  art  which  includes  all  of  the  operations 
and  practices  involved  in  fitting  the  soil  for  any  crop, 
and  the  caring  for  it  during  its  growth  to  maturity. 

Tillage  is  practiced  to  secure  the  largest  returns  from 
the  soil  in  the  way  of  crops.  Its  objects  have  been  enu- 
merated in  other  works  about  as  follows : 

(i)  To  produce  in  a  field  a  uniform  texture  to  such  a 
depth  as  will  render  the  most  plant  food  available. 

(2)  To  add  to  the  humus  of  the  soil  by  covering  be- 
neath the  surface  to  such  a  depth  as  not  to  hinder  further 
cultivation,  green  crops  and  other  vegetable  matter. 

(3)  To  destroy  and  prevent  the  growth  of  weeds, 
which  would  tend  to  rob  the  crops  of  food  and  moisture. 

(4)  To  modify  the  condition  of  the  soil  in  such  a  way 
as  to  regulate  the  amount  of  moisture  retained  and  the 
temperature  of  the  soil. 

(5)  To  provide  such  a  condition  of  the  soil  as  to  pre- 
vent excessive  action  of  the  rains  by  washing  and  the 
wind  by  drifting. 

At  the  present  time  practically  all  of  the  various  opera- 
tions of  tillage  are  carried  on  by  aid  of  machinery,  and 
for  this  reason  tillage  machinery  is  of  greatest  impor- 
tance in  modern  farming  operations.  Modern  tillage 
machinery  has  enabled  the  various  objects  as  set  forth  to 


52  FARM    MACHINERY 

be  realized,  thus  not  only  increasing  the  yield  an  acre,  but 
at  the  same  time  permitting  a  larger  area  to  be  tilled. 


THE  PLOW 

84.  The  development  of  the  plow.— The  basic  tillage  operation 
is  that  of  plowing,  and  for  this  reason  the  plow  will  be  consid- 
ered first.  Some  of  the  oldest  races  have  left  sculptural  records 
on  their  monuments  describing  their  plows.  From  the  time  of 
these  early  records  civilization  and  the  plow  have  developed  in 
an  equal  proportion.  The  first  plow  was  simply  a  form  of  hoe 
made  from  a  crooked  stick  of  the  proper  shape  to  penetrate  and 
loosen  the  soil  as  it  was  drawn  along.  The  power  to  draw  the 
plow  was  furnished  by  man,  but  later,  as  animals  were  trained 
for  draft  and  burden,  animal  power  was  substituted  and  the  plow 
was  enlarged. 

The  records  of  the  ancient  Egyptians  illustrate  such  a  plow. 
At  an  early  time  the  point  of  the  plow  was  shod  with  iron,  for 
it  is  recorded  that  about  1,100  years  B.C.  the  Israelites,  who  were 
not  skilled  in  the  working  of  iron,  "went  down  to  the  Philistines 
to  sharpen  every  man  his  share  and  his  coulter."  In  the 
"Georgics,"  Virgil  describes  a  Roman  plow  as  being  made 
of  two  pieces  of  wood  meeting  at  an  acute  angle  and  plated 
\  with  iron. 

During  the  middle  ages  there  was  but  little  improvement  over 
the  crude  Roman  plow  as  described  by  Virgil.  The  first  people 
to  improve  the  Roman  model  were  the  Dutch,  who  found  that 
more  perfect  plow  was  needed  to  do  satisfactory  work  in  their 
soil.  The  early  Dutch  plow  seems  to  have  most  of  the  funda- 
mental ideas  of  the  modern  plow  in  that  it  was  made  with  a 
curved  moldboard,  and  was  provided  with  a  beam  and  two 
handles.  The  Dutch  plow  was  imported  into  Yorkshire,  Eng- 
land, as  early  as  1730,  and  served  as  a  model  for  the  early 
English  plows.  P.  P.  Howard  was  one  whose  name  may  be 
mentioned  among  those  instrumental  in  the  development  of  the 
early  English  plow.  Howard  established  a  factory,  which  re- 
mains to  this  day. 

James  Small,  of  Scotland,  was  another  who  did  much  toward 
the  improvement  of  the  plow.  Small's  plow  was  designed  to  turn 
the  furrows  smoothly  and  to  operate  with  little  draft. 


\/^- 


TILLAGE    MACHINERY  53 

Robert  Ransome,  of  Ipswich,  England,  in  1785  constructed 
a  plow  with  the  share  of  cast  iron.  In  1803  Ransome  succeeded 
in  chilling  his  plows,  making  them  very  hard  and  durable.  The 
plows  of  Howard  and  Ransome  were  provided  with  a  bridle 
or  clevis  for  regulating  the  width  and  depth  of  the  furrow.  These 
plows  were  exhibited  and  won  prizes  at  the  London  and  the 
Paps^expositions  of  1851  and  1855. 

w^5.  American  development. — Before  the  Revolutionary  War 
the  plows  used  in  America  were  much  like  the  English  and 
Scotch  plows  of  that  period.  Conditions  were  not  favorable  to 
the  development  of  new  machinery  or  tools.  The  plow  used 
during  the  later  colonial  period  was  made  by  the  village  car- 
penter and  ironed  by  the  village  smith  with  strips  of  iron.  ih€ 
be^m,  standard,  handles,  and  moldboard  were  made  ot  wood,  and 
only  the  cutting  edge  and  strips  for  the  moldboard  were  made 
of  iron. 

Among  those  in  America  who  first  gave  thought  to  the  im- 
provement of  the  plow  was  Thomas  Jefferson.  While  represent- 
ing the  United  States  in  France  he  wrote :  "Oxen  plow  here 
with  collars  and  harness.  The  awkward  figure  of  the  moldboard 
Jeads  one  to  consider  what  should  be  its  form."  Later  he 
specified  the  shape  of  the  plow  by  stating:  "The  offices  of  the 
moldboard  are  to  receive  the  sod  after  the  share  has  cut  it,  to 
raise  it  gradually,  and  to  reverse  it.  The  fore  end  of  it  should 
be  as  wide  as  the  furrow,  and  of  a  length  suited  to  the  construc- 
ixory^i  the  plow." 

y^aniel  Webster  is  another  prominent  American  who,  history 
relates,  was  interested  in  the  development  of  the  plow.  He 
designed  a  very  large  and  cumbersome  plow  for  use  upon  his 


FIG.  31 — WEBSTER  S  PLOW 


54  FARM    MACHINERY 

farm  at  Marshfield,  Massachusetts,  It  was  over  12  feet  long, 
turned  a  furrow  18  inches  wide  and  12  inches  or  more  deep, 
and  required  several  men  and  yoke  of  oxen  to  operate  it, 
^xCharles  Newbold,  of  Burlington,  New  Jersey,  secured  the  first 
letters  patent  on  a  plow  in  1797.  Newbold's  plow  differed  from 
others  in  that  it  was  made  almost  entirely  of  iron.     It  is  stated 


FIG.    32 — THE    NEWBOLD   PLOW 

that  the  farmers  of  the  time  rejected  the  plow  upon  the  theory 
that  so  much  iron  drawn  through  the  soil  poisoned  it,  and  not 
only  retarded  the  growth  of  plants,  but  stimulated^tlie  growth 
of  wjeeds. 

Jethro  Wood  gave  the  American  plow  its  proper  shape.  The 
moldboard  was  given  such  a  curvature  as  to  turn  the  furrow 
evenly  and  to  distribute  the  wear  well.  Although  Wood's  plow 
was  a  model  for  others  which  followed,  he  was  unrewarded  for 
his  work,  and  finally  died  in  want.  William  H.  Seward,  former 
Secretary  of  State,  said  of  him:  "No  man  has  benefited  his 
country  pecuniarily  more  than  Jethro  Wood,  and  no  man  has 
been  as  inadequately  rewarded." 

86.  The  steel  plow. — ^As  farming  moved  farther  west  the  early 
settlers  found  a  new  problem  in  the  tough  sods  of  the  prairie 
States.  A  special  plow  with  a  very  long,  sloping  moldboard 
was  found  to  be  necessary  in  order  to  reduce  friction  and  to  turn 
the  sod  over  smoothly.  Owing  to  the  firmness  of  the  sod,  it 
was  found  that  curved  rods  might  be  substituted  for  the  mold- 
board.  Later  when  the  sod  became  reduced  it  was  found  that 
the  wooden  and  cast-iron  plows  used  in  the  eastern  portion  of 
the  country  would  not  scour  well.     This  difficulty  led   to  the 


TILLAGE    MACHINERY 


55 


use_of  steel  in  t^f  mP^^'^Pi  "^  pinwg  Steel,  having  the  prop- 
erty  of  taking  an  excellent  polish,  permitted  the  sticky  soils  tP 
pa,ss  over  a  moldboard  made  of  it  where  the  otlicr  materiaJji 
failed. 

~  In  about   1833  John   Lane   made  a  plow  from   steel  cut  from 

an  old  saw.  Three  strips  of  steel  were  used  for  the  moldboaftT 

\  and  one  for  the  sha^e,  all  of  whlch^  were  fastened  to  a  "shi 

or  frame  of  iron.     John  Lane  secured  in  186^  a  patent  oh  soft- 

I  center  steel,  which  is  used  almost  universally  at  the  present  time 
in/flEJ^making  of'tillage  tools.  It  was  found  that  plat^^|;|iiade 
of  steel  were  brittle  and  warped  badly  during  tempering.  Weld- 
ing a  plate  of  soft  iron  to  a  plate  of  steel  was~trre3,  and,  although 
the  iron  supported  the  steel  well  when  hardened,  it  warped  very 
badly.  The  soft-center  steel,  which  was  formed  by  welding  a 
heavy  bar  of  iron  between  two  bars  of  steel  and  rolling  all 
down  into  plates,  permitted  the  steel  to  be  hardened  without 
\  warping.  It  is  very  strong  on  account  of  the  iron  center,  which 
will  not  become  brittle. 

In  1837  John  Deexe.  at  Grand  Detour,  Illinois,  builj  a  steel 
pjow  Trom  an  old  saw  which  was  much  similar  to  I>ane's  first 
eIS^.  In  1847  Deere  moved  to  Mojine,  Illinois,  and  established 
a  factory  which  still  bears  his  name.  William  Parlin  established 
a  factory  about  the  same  time  at  Canton,  which  is  also  one  of 
the  largest  in  the  country.  / 


FIG.    S3 — THE    MODERN    STEEL    WALKING    PLOW    WITH    STEEL    TIEAM    AND 
MOLD-COARD  FOR   STUBBLE  OR   OLD  GROUND 


56 


FARM    MACHINERY 


87.  The  sulky  or  wheel  plow. — The  development  of  the  sulky 
or  wheel  plow  has  taken  place  only  recently.     F.  S.  Davenport 
invented  the  first  successful  sulky  plow,  i.  e.,  one  permitting  the_ 
Operator  to  ride.,  February  9,  1864.    A  rolling  coulter  and  a  thre£-_ 
horse  evener  were  added  to  this  by  Robert  Newton,  of  Jersey- 
ville,   Illinois.     But  E.   Goldswait  had  patented  a  fore  carriage 
v/fn  1851  and  M.  Furley  a  sulky  plow  with  one  base  December  9, 
^^856.     Much  credit  for  the  early  development  of  the  sulky  plow^ 
\}^^^  due  to  Gilpin  Moore,  receiving  a  patent  January  19,  1875.  and 
W.    L.    Cassady,  to  whom   a   patent  was   granted   May  2,    1876. 
Cassady  first   used   a  wheel   for  a   landside.     Too  much   space 
would  be  required  to  mention  the  many  inventions  and  improve- 
ments which  have  been  added  to  the  sulky  plow. 


FIG.  34 — AN   UNDER  VIEW   OF  THE   MODERN    STEEL   PLOW,   SHOWING   ITS 
CONSTRUCTION 

88.  The  modern  steel  walking  plow. — Fig.  34  shows 
the  modern  steel  walking  plow  suitable  for  the  prairie 
soils.  The  parts  are  numbered  in  the  illustration  as 
follows : 

1.  Cutting  edge  or  share.  The  point  is  the  part  of  the 
sh^e  which  penetrates  the  ground,  and  the  heel  or  wing 
is  fife  outside  corner.  A  share  welded  to  the  landside  is 
a  bar  share,  while  one  that  is  independent  is  a  slip  share. 

2.  Moldboard :  The  part  by  which  the  furrow  is  turned. 
The  shin  is  the  lower  forward  corner. 

3.  Landside :  The  part  receiving  the  side  pressure  pro- 
duced when  the  furrow  is  turned.    A  plate  of  steel  covers 


TILLAGE    MACHINERY 


57 


the  laadside  bar,  furnishing  the  wearing  surface.  When 
used  for  old  ground,  the  plow  is  usually  constructed  with 
the  bar  welded  to  the  frog,  forming  the  foundation  to 
which  the  other  parts  are  attached.  Landsides  may  be 
classed  as  high,  medium,  and  low. 


Fig.  35 — steel  plowshares. 

THE     upper     is     the     SLIP 

share,  and  the  lower  the 

BAR    share 


FIG.  36 — THE  FORM  OF  THE 
HIGH,  MEDIUM,  AND  LOW 
LANDSIDES  FOR  WALKING 
PLOWS 


4.  Frog:  The  foundation  to  which  are  attached  the 
share,  moldboard,  and  landside. 

5.  Brace. 

6.  Beam :  May  be  of  wood  or  steel.  The  beam  in  a 
wooden-beam  plow  is  joined  to  the  plow  by  a  beam 
standard. 

7.  Clevis,  or  hitch  for  the  adjustment  of  the  plow. 

8.  Handles:  The  handles  are  joined  to  the  beam  by 
braces. 

9.  Coulter:  Classified  as  rolling,  fin,  or  knife  coulters. 

89.  Material. — While  in  the  cheaper  plows  the  mold- 
board  and  share  may  be  of  Bessemer  or  a  grade  of  cast 
steel,  in  the  best  plows  these  and  also  the  landside  are 
usually  made  of  soft-center  steel  or  chilled  iron.  The 
beam  is  usually  of  Bessemer  steel,  while  the  frog  may  be 
of  forged  steel,  malleable  iron,  or  cast  iron. 


58 


FARM    MACHINERY 


go.  Reenforcements. — A  patch  of  steel  is  usually  welded 
upon  the  shin,  the  point  of.  the  share,  and  the  heel  of  the 
landside.  These  parts  are  also  made  interchangeable  so 
new  parts  may  be  substituted  when  worn. 

91.  Size.- -Walking   plows   are   made  to   cut   furrows 


FIG.    Zl — ROLLING     CASTER    AND     ROLLING     STATIONARY     COULTERS,     FIN 
HANGING^  KNEE,  DOUBLE  ENDER,  AND  KNIFE  CUTTERS  OR  COULTERS 


from  8  to  18  inches,  A  plow  cutting  a  14-inch  furrow  is 
considered  a  two-horse,  and  one  cutting  a  16-  or  an  18- 
inch  furrow  a  three-horse  plow. 

92.  The  modern  sulky  plow. — The  name  sulky  plow  is 
used  for  all  wheel  plows,  but  applies  more  particularly  to 
single  plows,  while  the  name  gang  is  given  to  double  or 


TILLAGE   MACHINERY 


59 


larger  plows.  Fig.  38  illustrates  the  typical  sulky  plow, 
and  reference  is  made  to  its  various  parts  by  number : 

I.  The  moldboard,  share,  frog  or  frame,  and  landside 
is  called  the  plow  bottom.  Most  sulky  plows  are  made 
with  interchangeable  bottoms,  so  it  is  possible  to  use  the 
same  carriage  for  various  classes  of  work  by  using  suit- 
able bottoms. 

2  and  3  are  the  rear  and  the  front  furrow  wheels,  re- 
spectively.    These  wheels  are  set  at  an  angle  with  the 


FIG.  38 — THE  MODERN  FOOT-LIFT  BEAM-HITCH   SULKY  PLOW  WITH   STEEL 
PLOW  BOTTOM 


vertical  in  order  that  they  may  carry  to  better  advantage 
the  side  pressure  of  the  plow  due  to  turning  the  furrow 
slice. 

4.  The  largest  wheel  traveling  upon  the  unplowed  land 
is  spoken  of  as  the  land  wheel. 

5.  The   connections  between  the  plow  beam  and  the 
frame  are  called  the  bails. 


6o  FARM    MACHINERY 

6.  A  rod  called  the  weed  hook  is  provided  to  collect  the 
tops  of  high  vegetation. 

7.  Practically  all  wheel  plows  are  now  provided  with 
inclosed  wheel  boxes,  which  exclude  all  dirt  and  carry  a 
large  supply  of  grease.  The  inclosed  wheel  box  has  a 
collar  which  excludes  the  dirt  at  the  axle  end  of  the  wheel 
box,  and  has  the  other  end  entirely  inclosed  with  a  cap. 
The  grease  is  usually  stored  in  the  cap,  which  is  made 
detachable  from  the  hub. 

8.  Wheel  plows  are  now  generally  provided  with  a 
foot  lift,  by  which  the  plow  is  lifted  out  and  forced  into 
the  ground. 

9.  For  plowing  in  stony  ground,  it  is  necessary  to  set 
the  plow  to  float,  so  that  in  case  a  stone  is  struck  the 
plow  will  be  free  to  be  thrown  out  of  the  ground  without 
lifting  the  carriage,  otherwise  the  plowman  will  be 
thrown  from  his  seat  and  the  plow  damaged. 

10.  The  various  parts  of  the  sulky  plow  are  usually 
attached  to  the  frame,  and  this  is  an  important  part  in 
the  construction  of  the  plow.  Not  all  sulky  plows,  how- 
ever, are  made  with  a  frame. 

93.  Types  of  sulky  plows. — Sulky  plows  differ  much  in 
construction.  The  two-wheel  plow  is  not  used  exten- 
sively at  the  present  finie  because  it  does  not  carry  the 
side  pressure  of  the  plow  well  and  does  not  turn  a  good"" 
square  coniSJu^  One  type  of  construction  is  that  of  a 
frame  wi tlL-wbeel s  attache d  hj  means  oi_brackets,  making 
a^arriage.  To  this  carriage  the  plow  proper  is  attached 
by  bails.  The  hitch  to  frame  plows  may  be  to  either  the 
frame  or  to  the  plow  beam.  The  former  is  known  as  a 
frame  hitch  and  the  latter  as  a  beam  hitch.  There  are 
good  plows  upon  the  market  with  a  frame  hitch,  but  the 
beam  hitch  plow  seems  to  be  preferred. 

A  cheaper  type  of  plow  than  the  frame  plow  is  the 


TILLAGE   MACHINERY 


6i 


framelesSj_with  the  wheel  brackets  bolted  directly  to  the 

piow  beam.  Such  plows  will  often  do  very  satisfactory 
work,  but  are  not  quite  so  handy.  Frame  plows  are  gen- 
erally high-lift  plows  in  that  the  plow  may  be  lifted  sev- 
eral inches  above  the  plane  of  the  carriage.  A  high-lift 
plow  offers  an  advantage  for  cleaning  and  transporting 
from  field  to  field. 

With  the  cheaper  plows  there  is  no  attempt  to  guide 
or  steer  the  plow  other  than  let  it  follow  the  team.    Such 

-     I  Tl  I   --111    II  11  !!■  ————I  .. 

plows  may  be  classed  as  1;oijgijglgg^.  A  tongueless  plow 
maj^  hpAvever,  be  provided  with  a  banj  lever  either  to 
shift  the, hitch  or  guide  the  front  furrow  vv^heel.  Such  a 
plow  may  be  called  a  hand-guided  plow,  and  the  lever  for 
guiding  or  adjusting  is  called  the  landing  lever. 

There  is  still  another  type  of  frameless  plow^wh  ch  is 
guided  by  the  hitch.    In  the  hitch-guided  plow  the  (vonfc 


FIG.  39 — THE  MODERN  GANG  PLOW 


62 


FARM    MACHINERY 


furrow  wheel  or  the  front  and  rear  furrow  wheels  are 
steered  by  a  connection  to  the  plow  clevis.  A  tongue 
may  be  used  with  this  type  of  plow  to  keep  the  team 
straight  and  to  hold  the  plow  back  from  off  the  horses' 
heels  while  being  transported. 

The  higher  class  sulky  plows  are  guided  with  an  ad- 
justable tongue,  the  tongue  being  connected  to  the  front 
and  rear  furrow  wheels. 

Sulky  plows  are  usually  fitted  with  a  14-,  16-,  or  18-inch 
plow  bottom,  the  16-inch  being  the  common  size. 

94.  Gang  plowsI^^Nearly  every  sulky  plow  upon  the 
market  has  its  mate  among  the  gang  plows,  which,  as 
stated  before,  do  not  differ  greatly  from  it,  only  in  that 
they  have  two  or  more  plow  bottoms  instead  of  one. 
Gang  plows  usually  have  a  hand  lever  to  assist  thejoot 
lift  in  raising  and  lowering  the  plow.  The  common  sizes 
of  gang-plow  bottoms  are  12-  and  14-inch. 


FIG.  40 — ^TYPES  OF  PLOW  BOTTOMS.      NO.  I   IS  THE  STUBBLE  OR  OLD  GROUND 

BOTTOM.      NO.    7    IS    THE  BREAKER  BOTTOM   FOR  TOUGH    NATIVE 

SODS.      NOS.   2,    3,    4,    5,    AND  6  ARE   INTERMEDIATE 

TYPES    FOR   GENERAL   PURPOSE  PLOWS 


TILLAGE    MACHINERY 


63 


95.  Types  of  plows'  bottoms. — The  plow  bottom,  as 
stated  before,  i^Jthe  plow  proper,  detached  from  the  beam 
or  standard.  Owing  to  the  varying  conditions  under 
which  ground  is  to  be  plowed,,  a  few  general  types,  each 
with  its  own  form  of  moldboard  and  share,  have  been 
established.  These  forms  are  illustrated  in  Fig.  40,  and 
vary  from  Na_7,  me  breaker,  with  its  long  slgpine^hare 
U^nd  moldboard,  for  natural  sods,  to  No^,  the  stubble 
plow  with  short,  abrupt  moldboard  for  old  ground.    The 


FIG.  41 — A   STEEL  WALKING  PLOW   WITH   INTERCHANGEABLE   MOLDBOARDS, 
BY   WHICH  IT  MAY  BE  MADE  INTO  A  BREAKER   OR   STUBBLE  PLOW 

intermediate  forms  are  given  the  name  of  turf  and 
stubble,  or  general  purpose,  plows,  being  used  for  the  sod 
of  the  cultivated  grasses  or  for  stubble  ground.  The 
breaker  is  suitable  for  tlie  native  sods  oflhe  Westera 
prairies,  as  it  turns  the  furrows  very  smoothly  and  covers 
the  vegetation  completely,  that  it  may  decay  quickly. 
The  abrupt  curvature  of  the  moldboard  in  the  stubble 
bottom  causes  the  furrow  slice  to  be  broken  and  crumbled 
in  making  the  sharp  turn,  and  thus  has  a  more  pulver- 
izing action  and  is  designed  for  old  ground.  The  general 
purpose  plow  is  designed  for  the  lighter  sods,  such  as 
those  of  the  tame  grasses. 


.Xl^f^JCk 


64  FARM    MACHINERY 

Some  manufacturers  make  plows  with  interchangeable 
moldboards,  and  sulky  plows  are  usually  built  with  inter- 
changeable bottoms,  so  the  plow  or  carriage  may  be  use<l~ 
for  a  variety  of  soils.  ^ 

96.  The  jointer. — The  jointer  is  used  in  soils  inclined 
to  be  soddy.  It  enables  the  plow  to  do  cleaner  work  and 
cover  all  vegetation,  throwing  a  ribbon-like  strip  of  turf 
into  the  furrow.     It  will  often  render  excellent  service 


FIG.    42 — ^TYPES    OF    JOINTERS.       THE    TWO    AT    THE    LEFT    ARE    MADE    OF 

STEEL ;  THE  ONE  AT  THE  RIGHT  IS   A   CHILLED  IRON  JOINTER 

WITH    AN    ADJUSTABLE    SHANK 

where  sod  ground  is  to  be  plowed  deep  and  left  in  shape 
for  immediate  pulverizing  to  fit  it  for  crops.  It  will  cut 
out  a  section  of  the  sod,  turning  it  into  the  bottom  of  the 
furrow,  where  it  will  be  completely  covered,  and  at  the 
same  time  leave  the  upper  edge  of  the  furrow  slice  com- 
posed only  of  comparatively  loose  earth.  By  cutting  out 
the  corner  of  the  furrow  slice,  the  furrows  will  be  com- 
pletely inverted,  leaving  the  surface  smooth.  If  the  fur- 
row slice  is  perfectly  rectangular,  the  furrows  are  inclined 
to  pile  or  lap  over  each  other. 


TILLAGE    MACHINERY 


6s 


97.  The  chilled  plow. — In  many  places,  especially  in 
the  eastern  United  States,  many  of  the  plows  used  are  of 
chilled  cast  iron.    A  chilled  plow  with  an  interchangeable 


FIG.  43 — A  MODERN  CHILLED   WALKING  PLOW  WITH  JOINTER   AND   GAUGE 

WHEEL 

point  is  shown  in  Fig-.  43.  Chilled  plows  are  very  hard, 
but  will  not  scour  in  all  soils.  The  share  can  only  be 
ground  to  an  edge  when  dull,  or  it  may  be  replaced  at  a 
small  cost. 

98.   The   hillside   plow. — In   localities   too    sloping   to 
throw  the  furrow  uphill,  hillside  or  reversible  plows  are 


FIG.  44 — A  REVERSIBLE  OR  HILLftlDE  PLOW  WITH  KNIFE  COULTER 

used.  A  plow  which  may  be  made  a  right-  or  left-hand 
plow  by  turning  it  under  on  a  hinge  to  the  standard  is 
shown  in  Fig.  44.    In  irrigated  districts  where  deaJ  fur- 


^  FARM    MACHINERY 

rows  interfere  with  the  carrying  of  water  upon  the  land, 
reversible  plows  are  used.  These  are  of  many  forms,  but 
the  type  will  not  be  further  discussed. 

99.  The  subsoil  plow. — Where  it  is  desirable  to  loosen 
the  proiind  t<^  ^  greater  Hppth  th,ati  can  be  done  with  a 
surface  olow.  the  subsoil  plow  is  used.     It  is  used  with 


<\ 


FIG.    45 — A  SUBSOIL   PLOW   FOR   LOOSENING   THE   SOIL  IN   THE   BOTTOM    OF 
THE  FURROW    MADE  BY   THE   COMMON   PLOW 

the  regular  plow,  following  in  the  furrow  made  by  it. 
Opinions  in  regard  to  the  value  of  this  plow  differ,  but 
the  subject  will  not  be  discussed  here. 

100.  The  disk  plow. — The  disk  plow  is  the  result  of  an 
effort  on  the  part  of  inventors  to  reduce  the  draft  due  to 


the  sliding  friction  upon  the  moldboard.  Figs.  46  and  47 
show  the  modern  disk  plow  made  "for  horse  and  engine 
power,  respectively.  A  plow  consisting  of  three  disks 
cutting  very  narrow  strips  was  about  the  first  one  pat- 
ented7M.  A.  and  I.  N.  Cfavath,  of  Bloomington,  Illinois, 
being  its  inventors.  Under  certain  conditions,  it  is  said, 
\/this  plow  did  very  satisfactory  work,  but  the  side 
pres'sure  was  not  sufficiently  provid^^d  for.  M.  F.  Han,r_ 
cock  succeeded  in  introducing  the  disk  plow  into  localities 


TILLAGE   MACHINERY  dy 

'^^^''^^where  conditions  were  well  adapted  to  its  use,  and  be- 
came  prominent  as  a  promoter  of  the  disk  plow. 


FIG.  46 — A  DISK  GANG  PLOW  TO  BE  OPERATED  BY  HORSE  POWER 

The  draft  of  the  disk  plow  is  often  heavier  in  propor- 
tion to  tJie  amount  of  work  done,  and  the  plow  itseU  is 


FIG.  47— AN    ENGINE    DISK    GANG    PLOW    TURNING    8-,    I0-,    OR    12-INCH 

FURROWS 


68  FARM    MACHINERY 

more  clumsy  than  the  moldboard  plow;  so  where  the 
latter  will  do  good  work  there  is  no  advantage  in  using 
the  former.  In  sticky  soils,  however,  or  ir|  very  huy^] 
ground,  where  it  is  impossible  to  use  the  moldboard  plow, 
th^disk  will  gften  be  found  to  do  good  work,  and  in  the 
latter  case  with  much  less  draft.  The  moldboard  plow 
is  recomjnended  b^  the  manufacturers  of  both  plows 
where  it  will  do  ^^ood  work.^ 

Disk  plows  have  been  made  in  the  walking  style  within 
the  past  few  years,  but  have  proved  rather  unsatisfactory. 
A  few  of  this  style  are  suitable  for  hillside  and  irriga- 
tion plows,  being  made  reversible. 

loi.  The  steam  plow. — Where  steam  power  is  used  for 
other  purposes,  or  where  farming  is  carried  on  exten- 
sively, steam  may  be  used  at  a  saving  over  horse  power 
in  plowing.  This  has  been  attempted  for  many  years,  but 
it  has  only  recently  become  very  successful,  and  even 
now  the  sl^am  plow  is  used  only  on  large  farms  and  on 
level  land.  If  the  soil  is  not  fmri,  the  great  weight  causes 
the  traction  wheels  of  the  engine  to  sink  into  the  ground 
rnitil  the  plow  cannot  be  pulled.   ~" 

The  modern  steam  plow,  direct  connected,^eered  from 
V^he  rear,  and^aving  a  steam  lift,  is  a  very  successful 
machine.  Its  advantages  are  its  capacity  and  unlimifeB 
power  for  deep  plowiiig.  The  cost  of  plowing  with  a 
steam  plow  varies  with  the  cost  of  fuel  and  other  condi- 
tions, but  it  should  be  from  75  cents  to  $1.50  an  acre. 
Outfits  capable  of  plowing  and  at  the  same  time  pre- 
paring the  seed  bed  and  seeding  40  to  50  acres  in  a  day 
are  now  in  use. 

A  type  of  steam  plow  which  has  been  successful  in 
^  Europe  is  operated  by  a  system  of  cables.  The  plow  is 
\^^^  drawn  back  and  forth  across  the  field  by  means  of  the 
I  cable,  the  engine  being  placed  at  one  end  of  the  field. 


TILLAGE    MACHINERY 


69 


The  steam  plow  may,  in  some  cases,  in  certain  soils, 
be  the  means  of  producing  an  increase  of  yield  of  crops, 
by  plowing  to  a  greater  depth  than  could  be  done  by 
horse  power. 

102.  The  set  of  walking  plows. — The  original  set  of  a 
plow,  or  the  proper  adjustment  of  its  point, ^jhare^  and 

beam,  is  given  by  the  malcef. Each  time  when  the  plow 

is  sharpened  the  smith  is  depended  upon  to  return  this 
set  jojhe  plow. 

103.  Suction. — The  suction  of  a  plow  is  usually  meas- 
ured as  the  width,  of  the  opening  between,JhgJ^iid^€; 
and  a  straight  edge  laid  uponjj^s^vvhen  the  plow  is  bottom 
side  up.^lt  is  usuaHyabout  ys  inch,  but  may  vary  slightly 


FIG.  48— THE  SUCTION  OF  WALKING  PLOWS  SOMEWHAT  EXAGGERATED 


without  detriment  to  the  plow.  It  may  also  be  described 
as  the  amount  the  point  is  turned  down  to  secure  pene- 
tration. 

The  point  of  the  share  is  also  turned  slightly  outward, 
which  makes  the  line  of  the  landside  somewhat  concave. 
The  beam  of  a  three-horse  plow  is  in  a  line  with  the  land- 
side,  but  in  a  two-horse  plow  it  is  placed  a  little  to  the 
furrow  side  of  the  line  of  the  landside,  usually  about  3 
inches,  in  order  that  the  hitch  may  be  more  directly 
behind  the  team.  For  ordinary  plows  the  point  of  the 
beam  standsi4Jnches  high,  but  it  is  higher  for  hard  soils. 
Some  bearing  must  be  given  at  the  heel  of  the  share  in 
walking  plows,  to  carry  the  downward  pressure  of  the 


70  FARM   MACHINERY 

furrow.  One  Inch  width  of  bearing  surface  for  12-  and  14- 
inch  plows  and  1%.  inches  for  16-inch  plows  is  the  average 
width  of  this  bearing,  more  being  needed  for  soft,  mellow 
soils  than  for  firm  soils.  This  fact  necessitates  a  change 
in  the  plow  in  changing  from  hard  to  mellow  soils,  as  a 
share  set  for  a  hard  soil  will  swing  to  one  side  or  work 
poorly  in  the  mellow  soil.  A  handy  device  called  a  heel 
plate  is  sometimes  used  to  vary  the  width  of  surface  at 
the  heel. 

104.  The  set  of  sulky  plows. — With  the  sulky  plow, 
when  the  share  lies  on  a  flat  surface,  the  distance  from 
the  heel  of  the  landside  to  the  surface  is  called  the  suction. 


FIG.  49— THE  BEARING  SURFACE  REQUIRED  AT  THE  WING  OF  THE  SHARE 

In  sulky  and  gang  plows  this  is  usually  ^  inch.  The 
entire  downward  pressure  or  suction  should  be  carrleii 
upon  the  wheels  or  carriage,  which,  with  their  well  lubri- 
cated bearings,  will  reduce  the  draft  and  require  no  bear- 
ing surface  at  the  wing  of  the  share.  In  order  to  reduce 
the  friction  by  removing  the  pressure  from  the  landside, 
the  rear  furrow  wheel  is  set  outside  the  line  of  the  land- 
side,  usually  about  i^  inches. 

105.  Set  of  coulter. — The  rolling  coulter  should  be  set 
to  clear  the  shin  of  the  plow  by  about  ^  inch,  and  should 
cut  j^  inch  or  ^  inch  outside  the  shin.    It  is  said  that  if 


TILLAGE    MACHINERY  7I 

the  coulter  is  made  to  ciit  i  inch  or  more  outside  the 
landside,  thus  increasing  the  load  upon  the  plow,  it  can 
be  made  to  scour  when  giving  difficulty  in  this  respect. 
When  plowing  among  roots  the  plow  is  enabled  to  run 
over  rather  than  underneath  large  roots  by  inclining  the 
knife  coulter  backward  with  its  point  below  the  point  of 
the  plow;  otherwise  the  knife  coulter  must  be  set  with 
the  lower  point  well  ahead. 

106.  Scouring. — Some  soils  are  of  such  a  nature  that 
a  plow  can  be  made  to  scour  only  with  difficulty.  This 
is  true  especially  of  soils  in  the  Middle  West.  In  other 
localities  plows  give  little  trouble  in  this  respect.  When 
the  plow  is  at  fault,  poor  scouring  may  be  due  (i)  to  poor 
ternper.     In  this  case  the  share  and  moldboard  are  not 

enough  to  take  a  good  polish,  and  hence  will  not 
scour  well.  These  parts  should  be  so  hard  that  they  can 
barely  be  scratched  with  a  file.  (2)  To  poor  grinding. 
Sometimes  hollows  have  been  ground  into  the  moldboard, 
over  which  the  furrow  slice  presses  so  lightly  that  not 
enough  pressure  is  given  to  cause  the  spot  to  scour.  This 
may  readily  be  tested  by  carrying  the  tips  of  the  fingers  up 
the  plow  quickly,  from  the  edge  of  the  share  in  the  direc- 
tion the  soil  moves.  (3)  To  a  poor  fitting,  i.  e.,  where  the 
joint  between  the  share  and  moldboard  is  not  smooth. 
A  remedy  for  this  is  procured  by  shimmering  the  share 
up  or  down  with  small  pieces  of  pasteboard.  (4)  To  the 
edge  of  the  share  not  being  level,  making  a  low  spot  back 
of  the  edge.  This  is  usually  caused  by  a  warped  share. 
(5)  To  poor  setting.  The  plow  must  be  set  as  previously 
described. 

107.  Sharpening  steel  shares. — It  is  recommended  by 
some  manufacturers  that  until  necessary  only  the  ex- 
treme point  of  a  share  be  heated  to  put  into  form,  the 
edge  being  sharpened  by  grinding;  but  when  necessary 


72  FARM    MACHINERY 

to  heat  and  draw  to  an  edge  by  hammering,  they  recom- 
mend the  following  procedure : 

The  point  should  be  heated  to  a  low  cherry  red.  If  the 
heat  is  too  intense,  the  quality  of  the  steel  will  be  injured. 
Only  as  much  should  be  heated  at  once  as  can  be  ham- 
mered. The  body  of  the  share  must  be  kept  cool  and 
strong  so  the  fitting  edges  may  not  be  disturbed.  After 
this,  the  entire  cutting  edge  should  be  cold  hammered. 
The  share  should  then  be  set  on  a  level  platform,  leaving 
1/16  inch  under  the  middle  piece  to  give  proper  suction 
or  pitch.  The  edge  must  touch  all  the  way  along,  and 
the  proper  bearing  must  be  given  at  the  wing. 

108.  Hardening  plowshares. — A  hardened  share  will 
retain  its  cutting  edge  much  longer  than  a  soft  share.  It 
is  highly  advisable,  after  each  time  the  edge  is  drawn  out 
by  heating  and  hammering,  that  the  share  be  hardened. 
Some  soils  require  hardened  steel  shares  in  order  that 
they  may  retain  their  scouring  qualities.  Several  reliable 
manufacturers  give  directions  for  sharpening  and  harden- 
ing shares  made  of  soft-center  steel  about  as  follows: 
^Sharpening :  The  whole  point  should  be  heated  to  a  very  low 
Ved  heat,  then  the  face  of  the  share  must  be  turned  down- 
ward with  the  heel  over  the  fire  and  the  point  about 
2  inches  higher  than  the  heel.  In  this  way  the  whole 
length  of  the  share  will  be  heated  almost  in  one  heat, 
as  the  fire  will  be  drawn  along  from  the  heel  toward  the 
point.  An  uneven  heat  will  warp  and  crack  the  share. 
When  a  moderate  heat  has  been  reached  it  must  be  re- 
moved, and  it  will  be  noticed  if  the  share  is  sprung  up 
along  the  edge.  This  must  be  set  right,  and  the  following 
methods  may  be  used  to  harden : 

First.  The  edge  must  be  made  hard  and  springy  by 
cold  hammering;  then  the  share  is  to  be  heated  as  de- 
scribed to  a  low  cherry  red.     It  should  be  let  into  the 


TILLAGE    MACHINERY  73 

water  (holding  It  bottom  side  up)  far  enough  to  cool  the 
edge,  then  taking  it  out,  and  the  color  should  be  watched 
as  the  heat  returns  to  the  edge.  When  a  dark  straw  or 
mottled  purple  reaches  the  edge,  the  entire  share  may  be 
cooled. 

Second.  If  a  supply  of  oil  is  at  hand,  the  share  may 
be  tempered  with  less  risk  of  breakage.  When  oil  is  used 
(linseed  or  lard  oil  will  answer)  the  share  is  to  be  heated 
as  before  to  a  low  cherry  heat,  then  lowered  into  the  oil 
till  entirely  cool.  After  this  it  must  be  held  over  the  fire 
till  the  temper  is  sufficiently  drawn,  which  will  be  indi- 
cated by  the  oil  on  the  thin  part  of  the  share  taking  fire. 
It  may  finally  be  cooled  by  immersion  in  cold  water. 

109.  Draft  of  plows. — The  nature  of  soils,  growth  of 
roots,  and  amount  of  moisture  present  influence  the  draft 
of  plows.  The  shape  of  the  moldboard  also  affects  the 
draft,  the  more  abrupt  curvature  producing  a  more  pul- 
verizing action  upon  the  furrow  slice,  and  requiring  more 
work. 

Professor  J.  W.  Sanborn,  of  Missouri,  made  tests  to 
determine  the  reduction  of  draft  due  to  the  use  of  a 
coulter,  the  results  o^  which  are  as  here  given.  The  tests 
were  made  with  a  plow  similar  to  the  sod  or  breaking 
plow,  and  in  clover  sod  two  years  old,  with  about  as 
much  moisture  present  as  would  permit  working  the  soil 
advantageously.    The  results  were  as  follows : 


Size  of  Furrow 

5-575"  X  15-08" 
5.325'  X  14-5 

Total 
Draft 

296.25 

343-75 

Draff 
per  Sq.  In. 

3-524 

4-453 

Sod  plow  with  wheel  coulter. . 
"       "      without  " 

Difference 47-50  .929 


The  coulter   resulted   in   better  work  and   diminished 
the  draft  20.86  per  cent.    A  later  series  of  observations 


74  FARM    MACHINERY 

was  made  on  clover  sod,  the  plow  being  provided  with  a 

wheel  coulter,  the  soil  being  drier  than  before.  The  fol- 
lowing results  were  obtained : 

Total  Draft 

Size  of  Furrow                 Draft  per  Sq.  In. 

Clover  sod  without  coulter. .. .  6.47"    X  11.61"        714-35  10.80 

"    with             "      ....  6.413"  X  12.47"        664.82  8.616 


Difference 49-53  2. 184 

In  these  tests  the  coulter  reduced  the  draft  25.34  per 
cent. 

It  is  stated  in  the  report  of  the  trials  of  plows  at  Utica 
that  the  total  draft  of  a  plow  is  divided  as  follows :  35  per 
cent  is  used  in  overcoming  the  friction  between  the  im- 
plement and  the  soil,  55  per  cent  in  cutting  the  furrow- 
slice,  and  10  per  cent  in  turning  it.  The  accuracy  of  these 
tests  has  been  doubted  by  some,  but  the  tests  seem  to 
have  been  conducted  with  care,  and  they  show  the  neces- 
sity of  keeping  a  sharp  cutting  edge.  It  is  desirable  that 
data  of  this  kind  be  obtained  by  tests  made  with 
modern  plows. 

no.  Draft  of  sulky  plows. — It  is  often  claimed  that  the 
draft  of  sulky  plows  is  less  than  that  of  walking  plnws^_ 
owing  to  the  friqtion  of  the  sole  and  landside  being  tranSr 
ferred  to  the  well-oiled  bearings  of  the  carriage.     But 

(records  show  that  there  is  no  gain  unless  the  weight  of 
the  driver  and  the  frame  is  deducted.  But  there  is  an 
evident  advantage  in  riding  plows,  even  if  the  draft  is 
slightly  greater  on  the  team  with  the  plowman  riding 
rather  than  walking,  and  the  plow  being  handled  with 
equal  facility.  Though  little  information  is  at  hand  on 
the  subject,  what  there  is  seems  to  indicate  that  there  is 
only  a  slight  difference  in  the  draft  of  walking  and  riding 
plows,  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  work  done. 

III.  The   selection  of  a  walking  plow. — The  best  in 


TILLAGE    MACHINERY 


75 


quality  of  material  and  workmanship  is  desirable  when 
selecting  a  walking  plow.  It  may  be  difficult  to  judge  of 
the  material,  but  the  workmanship  can  be  easily  deter- 
mined. Beginning  with  the  frog,  the  plow  should  be 
well  made  and  put  together,  and  at  this  point  a  vast  dif- 
ference in  plows  may  be  detected.  The  work  to  be  done 
should  determine  the  kind  of  plow  to  be  selected,  and 
the  type  of  mold-board  must  be  suited  to  the  soil  to  be 
turned.  While  steel-beamed  plows  are  used  to  better 
advantage  in  plowing  among  trash,  plows  with  wooden 
beams  have  an  advantage  in  being  lighter  and  less  likely 
to  be  sprung.  A  wooden-beam  plow,  striking  a  rock  or 
root,  may  ha^^^e  the  beam  broken,  while  with  a  steel-beam 
plow  it  may  be  distorted.  A  right-hand  plow  is  one 
that  turns  the  furrow  to  the  right,  and  a  left-hand  plow 
is  one  turning  the  furrow  to  the  left.  The  custom  estab- 
lished in  the  locality  where  it  is  to  be  used  should  deter- 
mine the  one  to  select,  as  one  has  no  advantage  over 
the  other. 

112.  The  selection  of  a  sulky  plow. — As  is  the  case  with 
the  walking  plow,  the  quality  of  a  sulky  plow  will  be 
indicated  largely  by  its  construction  and  workmanship, 
although  its  selection  requires  more  caie  than  that  of  a 
walking  plow.  To  be  brief,  a  well-made  plow  and  one 
easily  operated  as  regards  foot  lifts  and  levers  should  be 
chosen.  It  should  turn  a  square  corner  in  either  direc- 
tion, and  all  parts  subject  to  wear  should  either  be  adjust- 
able or  made  of  generous  dimensions.  This  applies  espe- 
cially to  bail  boxes  on  bail  plows. 

113.  Adjusting  the  walking  plow. — A  few  points  re- 
garding the  operation  of  plows  should  be  mentioned.  A 
walking  plow,  if  working  properly,  should  need  very  little 
attention  from  the  plowman,  only  requiring  him  to  steady 
it  with  the  handles.    If  it  requires  a  steady  pull  to  either 


76  FARM    MACHINERY 

side,  either  the  hitch  or  the  clevis  should  be  adjusted  or 
the  amount  of  bearing  given  at  the  heel  or  wing  is 
too  great  or  too  small.  It  should  be  seen  that  the  point 
is-well  turned  down  and  never  allowed  to  become  round- 
ing. If  it  becomes  much  worn,  new  metal  must  be  added. 
It  is  desirable  to  maintain  the  original  amount  of  suction 
and  the  distance  from  point  of  share  to  point  of  beam ; 
in  fact,  the  entire  form  of  the  plow  should  be  maintained 
as  nearly  as  possible  in  its  original  condition,  providing  it 
worked  satisfactorily  when  new. 

As  given  in  former  data,  a  large  proportion  of  the  draft 
is  due  to  the  cutting  of  the  furrow.  This  shows  the  im- 
portance of  keeping  the  cutting  edge  sharp.  It  has  also 
been  stated  that  if  after  being  sharpened  the  share  is 
hardened,  the  cutting  edge  will  be  retained  longer. 

114.  Adjusting  the  sulky  plow. — The  land  wheel  of  a 
three-wheel  sulky  or  gang  plow  should  travel  directly  to 
the  front,  but  often,  owing  to  bad  adjustment,  it  is  re- 
quired to  slip  occasionally,  because  it  is  traveling  at  an 
angle  with  the  direction  of  the  plow's  motion.  The  rear 
furrow  wheel  is  usually  given  a  small  *'lead"  from  the 
land,  i.  e.,  it  is  turned  out  a  little  from  the  unplowed  land. 
This  wheel  should  also  be  set  an  inch  or  so  outside  of 
the  line  of  the  landside,  in  order  to  remove  the  friction 
from  this  part  as  much  as  possible.  The  front  furrow 
wheel  is  given  "lead"  from  the  land  with  the  single  plow, 
and  toward  the  land  when  the  team  is  hitched  abreast  on 
gangs.  This  difference  in  the  latter  case  is  because  the 
line  of  draft  is  outside  the  line  of  work,  and  the  plow  is 
made  to  travel  directly  to  the  front  by  the  front  furrow 
wheel  being  turned  in. 

In  any  wheel  plow  the  load  should  be  carried  as  much 
as  possible  on  the  wheels  in  order  to  reduce  the  draft. 
There  should  be  a  reduction  in  draft  when  the  entire  load; 


TILLAGE    MACHINERY  'J'J 

due  to  lifting  and  turning  the  furrow  slice,  is  carried  upon 
the  carriage  wheels  with  the  well-lubricated  bearings, 
rather  than  upon  the  sole  and  landside  of  the  plow,  where 
all  is  sliding  friction. 

Care  should  be  taken  in  hitching  that  the  horses  are  not 
too  much  crowded  or  spread  too  much,  as  in  either  case 
good  work  cannot  be  done.  When  spread  too  much  the 
team  cannot  travel  directly  to  the  front  so  well,  and  the 
line  of  draft  is  too  far  out  to  do  good  work.  When 
crowded,  the  horses  are  working  at  a  disadvantage,  and 
the  heat  in  warm  weather  will  affect  them  more.  When 
not  in  use,  the  polished  surface  of  a  plow  should  be  pro- 
tected from  rust  by  a  coat  of  heavy  grease  or  **axle 
grease,"  and,  like  all  other  implements,  it  should  be 
protected  from  the  weather. 


CHAPTER  V 
TILLAGE  MACHINERY   (Continued) 

115.  The  smoothing  harrow.  —  After  plowing  the 
ground,  it  is  necessary  to  pulverize  the  soil  very  finely 
and  to  smooth  it.  The  harrow  is  the  implement  used  for 
this  purpose,  and  it  may  be  used  also  to  cover  seeds,  to 
form  a  dust  mulch  for  retaining  moisture,  and  to  kill 
weeds  when  they  are  beginning  to  grow. 

116.  Development. — Formerly  the  branch  of  a  tree  of 
a  size  to  suit  the  power,  whether  man  or  animal,  was  used 
as  a  harrow.  The  limb  chosen  had  small  branches  ex- 
tending usually  all  to  one  side  or  the  other,  so  as  to  lie 
flat  when  in  use.  Even  until  quite  recently  the  brush 
harrow  has  been  in  use  for  covering  seeds.  An  early  type 
of  harrow  consisted  of  a  forked  limb  with  spikes  in  each 
arm,  to  which  a  cross  arm  was  added  later.  This  form 
was  known  as  the  ''A"  harrow.  Until  late  in  the  six- 
teenth century  a  type  of  harrow  devised  by  the  Romans 
was  the  standard.  This  harrow  was  square  or  oblong, 
having  cross  bars  with  many  teeth  in  them. 

117.  Classification. — Harrows  may  be  classified  as  fol- 
lows: 

I.  Smoothing  harrows. 

Kinds  of  teeth Straight  fixed  tooth ; 

Square-and-round  tooth ; 

Cultivator  tooth. 
Kinds  of  frame Wood  frame ; 

Pipe  frame; 

Channel  or  U  bar  frame. 
Adjustment  of  teeth . .  Fixed  tooth ; 

Adjustable  tooth; 

Lever  harrows. 


TILLAGE   MACHINERY 

2.  Spring-tooth  harrows. 

3.  Curved  Icnife-tooth  harrows  or  pulverizers. 

4.  Disk  harrows:  Full  disk;  cutaway;  spading;  orchard. 


79 


It  will  not  be  possible  to  illustrate  all  these  forms  of 
harrows.    The  common  smoothing  harrow  is  not  shown, 


FIG.  50 — A  WOOD-BAR  LEVER  SMOOTHING  HARROW.       A   CHEAPER   HARROW 
IS  MADE  WITH  FIXED  TEETH  AND  A  WOODEN  FRAME 


but  a  lever  harrow  with  wooden  bars  is  shown  in  Fig.  50. 
Wooden-frame  harrows  can  be  used  to  better  advantage 
in  trashy  ground  when  they  are  provided  with  a  tooth 
fastener  so  arranged  that  the  teeth  will  slope  backward 


/IG.  51 — A  CURVED   KNIFE-TOOTH   HARROW  OR  PULVERIZER 


8o 


FARM    MACHINERY 


when  drawn  from  one  end.  Such  teeth  may  be  spoken  of 
as  adjustable.  A  curved  knife-tooth  harrow,  sometimes 
spoken  of  as  a  pulverizer,  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  51.    This 


RIDING    WEEUER 


crushes  clods  and  brings  the  soil  into  uniform  structure 
very  satisfactorily.  The  weeder  has  rather  long  teeth 
and  is  an  excellent  implement  for  destroying  small  weeds, 
and  also  to  form  a  dust  mulch  and  a  fine  tilth.    The  culti- 


FIG.  53 — A    SPRING-TOOTH  LEVER  HARROW 

vator  tooth  has  the  point  flattened,  and  is  curved  so  as 
to  penetrate  the  ground  more  readily.  Often  it  is  aided 
in  passing  over  obstacles  by  being  held  in  place  with  a 
spring. 


TILLAGE    MACHINERY  8l 

1 1 8.  The  spring-tooth  harrow. — This  harrow  is  illus- 
trated in  Fig.  53.  When  the  teeth  are  caught  on  any  ob- 
stacle they  spring  back  and  are  released,  this  fact  making 
it  a  very  useful  implement  for  stony  ground.  It  is  also 
an  excellent  pulverizer. 

119.  The  selection  of  a  tooth  harrow. — It  is  a  difficult 
matter  to  give  explicit  directions  for  selecting  a  harrow. 
The  work  to  be  done  is  the  first  thing  to  be  considered, 
as  a  smoothing  harrow,  for  instance,  performs  a  very 
different  office  from  a  pulverizer  or  a  weeder.  Next  the 
workmanship  used  in  its  manufacture  and  construction 
should  be  well  examined.  At  all  points  where  there  will 
be  much  wear  it  should  be  well  reenforced,  and  should 
have  the  general  appearance  of  being  a  well-made  tool. 
The  connection  between  the  sections  of  the  evener  espe- 
cially should  be  properly  reenforced,  as  the  work  of  a  sin- 
gle season  has  been  known  to  wear  out  these  connections. 
The  tooth  fastener  is  another  important  part  in  a  tooth 
harrow  which  demands  the  attention  of  the  purchaser. 
The  tooth  should  have  a  head  so  that  it  will  not  drop  out 
and  be  lost  in  case  the  fastener  should  become  loosened. 
The  square  tooth  is  desirable,  though  spike  teeth  are 
made  either  from  round  or  square  stock.  The  regular 
sizes  are  ^  inch  and  ^  inch,  the  ys.  inch  size  being  suit- 
able for  heavier  work.  The  number  of  teeth  to  the  foot 
of  the  harrow  may  vary  from  five  to  eight,  and  this  num- 
ber as  well  as  their  size  should  correspond  to  the  kind  of 
work  and  conditions  under  which  the  harrow  is  to  be 
used.  Originally  wooden  harrow  frames  were  the  only 
kind  used,  but  now  they  are  generally  made  of  steel  pipe, 
angle  and  channel  bars.  The  later  styles  of  harrow  are 
much  more  durable,  and,  the  same  amount  of  material 
being  used,  there  is  little  choice  between  the  styles  of 
steel  harrows.    Lever  harrows  have  an  advantage  in  that 


82  FARM   MACHINERY 

the  angle  of  the  tooth  may  be  adjusted,  making  the  im- 
plement capable  of  performing  a  variety  of  work.  Some 
levers  are  more  easily  operated  than  others.  This  lever 
adjustment  facilitates  transportation.  Some  harrows  are 
so  constructed  that  the  sections  may  fold  upon  each  other 
for  easy  transportation.  Harrows  in  which  the  ends  of 
the  tooth  bars  are  protected  are  suited  for  orchard  work, 
as  the  bars  will  not  catch  and  bark  the  trees. 


FIG.  54 — A  STEEL  LEVER  HARROW   WITH   A  RIDING  ATTACHMENT  OR  HAR-* 

ROW    CART.       THIS    HARROW    HAS    THE    TOOTH    BARS    MADE    OF 

STEEL    CHANNEL    BARS    WITH    PROTECTED    ENDS 

120.  The  harrow  cart. — In  order  that  the  operator  may 
ride,  this  device  is  sometimes  attached  behind  the  harrow. 
The  attachment  is  made  to  the  eveners  by  angle  bars,  and 
the  wheels  are  made  to  caster  so  that  in  turning  it  will 
follow  the  harrow.  It  is  very  laborious  to  walk  behind 
the  harrow  on  plowed  ground,  and  the  harrow  cart  re- 
moves this  difficulty ;  at  the  same  time  the  rider  has  easy 
control  of  the  team  and  is  above  the  dust.  The  extra 
draft  should  be  very  little,  but  the  wheels  should  have 
wide  tires  to  prevent  them  from  cutting  into  the  soft 
ground. 


TILLAGE   MACHINERY 


83 


121.  The  disk  harrow. — This  tool  is  perhaps  the  best 
adapted  for  pulverizing  and  loosening  the  ground  of  any 
yet  devised.  On  account  of  its  rolling  action,  it  can  be 
used  for  a  great  variety  of  conditions.  It  does  excellent 
service  in  reducing  plov^ed  ground  which  is  inclined  to 
be  soddy,  and  ma}^  even  be  used  to  prepare  hard  and  dry 
soils  for  plow^ing.  It  may  also  be  used  to  advantage  in 
destroying  weeds  after  they  have  grown  beyond  the  con- 
trol of  the  smoothing  harrow.  In  fact,  the  disk  harrow 
should  be  in  use  on  every  farm. 


FIG.  55 — A  TWO-LEVER  DISK  HARROW.      SCRAPERS  OPERATED  BY  THE    FEET 


122.  The  full-bladed  disk  harrow. — This  class  of  har- 
row may  be  used  to  good  advantage  as  a  pulverizer,  and 
the  blades  are  easily  sharpened  when  dull,  either  by 
grinding  or  turning  to  an  edge.  The  diameter  of  the  disks 
may  vary  from  12  to  20  inches.  For  general  purposes, 
the  medium-sized,  or  14-  or  16-inch,  disk  is  the  size  best 
adapted,  although  the  larger  sizes  may  have  slightly  less 
draft.    The  penetration  of  the  disk  blades  into  the  ground 


84 


FARM    MACHINERY 


is  determined  by  (i)  the  line  of  draft,  (2)  the  angle  of 
gangs,  (3)  the  curvature  of  the  disk  blades,  (4)  the 
weight  of  the  harrow,  and  (5)  the  sharpness  of  the 
blades. 

123.  The  cutaway  or  cut-out  disk  harrow. — As  may  be 
judged  from  the  name,  portions  of  the  periphery  of  the 
blade  of  this  harrow  are  notched  out,  allowing  the  re- 
maining  portions   to   penetrate   the    ground   to   greater 


FIG.   56 — A   SINGLE-LEVER  CUTAWAY  DISK    HARROW 

depth.  The  entire  surface,  however,  is  not  so  thoroughly 
pulverized  as  with  the  full-bladed  disk.  It  has  a  dis- 
advantage of  being  hard  to  sharpen.  The  cutaway  har- 
row seems  to  be  especially  adapted  to  work  among  stones 
and  may  be  used  to  cultivate  hay  land. 

124.  Spading  harrow. — This  type  of  harrow  has  blades 
curving  at  the  ends,  forming  a  sort  of  sprocket  wheel, 
with  the  cutting  edges  out.  It  works  much  like  a  cut- 
away.   To  sharpen  it  the  blades  must  be  separated  and 


1 


TILLAGE    MACHINERY 


8s 


drawn  out  much  as  a  plow  is  sharpened.    A  special  form 
of  spading  harrow  with  sharp  spikes  is  used  in  cultivating 


FIG.  57 — A  SPADING  HARROW 


alfalfa,  and  is  given  the  name  of  "alfalfa  harrow."  The 
orchard  disk  differs  from  the  common  disk  only  in  that 
it  has  an  extension  frame,   so  that  it  may  be  used  to 


FIG.  58 — AN  ORCHARD  DISK  HARROW   WITH  WIDE  FRAME  TO  WORK  UNDER 
TREES.      THE  GANGS  MAY  BE  SET  TO  THROW  IN  OR  OUT 


cultivate  rows  of  small  plants  as  well  as  to  reach  under 
trees  and  cultivate  the  soil  under  the  branches.   The  disk 


86  FARM    MACHINERY 

gangs  often  may  be  set  to  throw  in  or  out  from  the  center, 
to  suit  the  nature  of  the  work. 

Usually  the  first  parts  of  the  disk  harrow  to  wear  out 
are  the  bearings.  There  are  many  styles  of  ball  and 
chilled  iron  bearings  in  the  market  now,  but  those  of  hard 
wood  seem  to  be  as  satisfactory  as  any,  since  they  may 
be  easily  replaced.  The  construction  of  the  bearings 
should  be  such  as  to  exclude  all  dirt.  A  reliable  means  of 
oiling  should  be  provided,  and  it  is  well  to  have  an  oil 
pipe  to  the  bearings  which  extends  above  the  weight  pans 
or  frame. 

The  scrapers  or  cleaners  to  keep  the  disks  clean  are 
another  important  feature  of  the  disk  harrow.  These 
may  be  made  stationary  or  so  arranged  as  to  be  operated 
by  the  feet  of  the  driver  or  otherwise  when  needed. 
They  are  not  needed  when  working  in  dry  soil,  and  when 
stationary  they  cause  undue  friction.  A  scraper  that  is 
made  to  oscillate  by  horse  power  over  the  face  of  the 
disk  blades,  and  clean  them  automatically  once  in  six 
revolutions,  is  sometimes  used.  When  not  needed  it  may 
be  thrown  out  of  gear. 

Disk  harrows  with  bumpers  to  carry  the  end  thrust  of 
the  sections  are  usually  made  with  one  lever  in  order 
that  the  gangs  or  sections  may  be  adjusted  and  the  bump- 
ers kept  squarely  together.  A  scheme  to  surmount  this 
difficulty  is  to  adjust  the  outer  end  of  the  gangs  only.  A 
two-lever  disk  harrow  offers  several  advantages  by  ad- 
justing the  gangs  at  different  angles  for  side  hill  work 
and  for  double  disking  by  lapping  one-half  each  time. 
The  soil  when  disked  once  is  not  as  firm  as  the  undisked 
ground,  and  if  lapping  one-half,  it  may  be  necessary  to 
set  the  gangs  at  different  angles  in  order  to  cause  the 
harrow  to  follow  the  team  well. 

It  is  advisable  to  have  good  clearance  between  stand- 


i 


TILLAGE    MACHINERY  ^y 

ards  and  the  disks  and  between  the  weight  boxes  and  the 
disks.  Good  clearance  will  prevent  clogging  in  wet  and 
trashy  ground.  In  order  to  secure  flexibility  of  the  gangs 
it  is  almost  essential  to  have  spring  pressure  to  keep  the 
inside  ends  of  the  gangs  down.  There  is  a  natural  tend- 
ency for  the  gangs  to  raise  at  the  center.  If  three  horses 
are  to  be  used,  it  is  advisable  to  have  a  stub  tongue  and 
an  offset  pole.  Patent  three-horse  eveners  to  remove  side 
draft  with  the  pole  set  in  the  center  are  not  to  be  advised. 
A  liberal  amount  of  material  must  be  used  in  the  con- 
struction as  well  as  gopd  workmanship — for  instance,  a 
heavy  gang  bolt  with  a  lock  nut.  A  square  gang  bolt  is 
considered  better  than  a  round  one. 

125.  Tongueless  disk  harrows  are  now  made  with  a 
truck  under  a  stub-tongue.  These  harrows,  no  doubt, 
make  the  work  lighter  for  the  team,  but  sacrifice  a  certain 
amount  of  control  in  handling  the  harrow.  This  feature 
is  of  more  importance  under  certain  conditions  than 
others.  A  tongue  truck  is  also  used  and  is  a  very  satis- 
factory addition  to  the  harrow. 

126.  Plow-cut  disk  harrows. — Harrows  have  been  con- 
structed for  several  years  with  disks  which  have  a  raised 
or  bulging  center,  the  idea  being  that  the  dirt  in  being 
forced  up  over  the  raised  center  is  turned  over  much  like 
it  would  be  from  the  moldboard  of  a  plow.  It  is  claimed 
by  the  manufacturer  that  this  shape  enables  the  harrow 
to  cover  the  small  trash  better,  that  it  leaves  the  ground 
leveler,  and  the  harrow  has  better  penetration  on  account 
of  the  shape  of  the  disk  blades.  All  these  claims  are  de- 
nied by  other  manufacturers. 

THE  ROLLER   AND  FLANKER 

127.  The  land  roller  is  a  very  efficient  tool  for  working 
up  a  fine  tilth  and  for  making  the  ground  smooth  and 


88 


FARM    MACHINERY 


firm.  The  first  rollers  were  constructed  out  of  suit- 
able logs  and  were  drawn  by  yokes  engaging  pins  in 
the  ends  of  the  rollers.  It  was  soon  found  that  if  a 
log  of  any  width  was  used,  it  would  not  work  well 
on  uneven  ground,  and  it  was  clumsy  to  turn.  Rollers 
made  in  two  or  three  sections  were  then  introduced, 
which  were  found  in  a  great  measure  to  overcome  these 
difficulties.  If  the  soil  moisture  is  to  be  conserved, 
the  roller  should  be  followed  by  a  smoothing  harrow, 


FIG.  59 — A  SMOOTH  IRON  ROLLER 

as  the  former  smooths  and  packs  the  ground,  permuting 
the  escape  of  the  capillary  water  into  the  air.  The  har- 
row will  roughen  the  surface,  thereby  decreasing  the 
wind  velocity,  and  will  also  put  a  dust  mulch  over  the 
surface.  The  ground  will  he  in  much  better  condition 
for  a  mower  or  other  machine  vuter  t^'e  roller  has  nassed 
over  it. 


TILLAGE    MACHINERY 


89 


Certain  advantages  over  the  plain  smooth  rollers  are 
claimed  for  the  corrugated  or  tubular  rollers,  several 
styles  of  which  have  been  invented.     They  are  said  to 


FIG.   60 — A  TUBULAR  ROLLER 


crush  the  clods  better,  and  they  do  not  leave  a  smooth 
surface.     Figs.  60  and  61   illustrate  two  rollers  of  this 


FIG.   61 — A  FLEXIBLE  ROLLER   AND  CLOD   CRUSHER  OF  SPECIAL   DESIGN 

type.  H.  W.  Campbell  invented  a  tool  of  this  nature 
called  the  subsurface  packer,  for  packing  the  ground  be- 
neath the  surface.  This  tool  (illustrated  in  Fig.  62)  con- 
sists of  a  series   of  wheels   with   wedge-shaped   tread. 


90 


FARM    MACHINERY 


Campbell  advocates  a  method  of  surface  cultivation  to 
conserve  the  moisture  in  semi-arid  regions.  The  inter- 
tillage  of  wheat  and  other  small  grains  is  included  in  this 
system.  An  authority  states  that  rollers  should  be  at 
least  2  feet  in  diameter,  and  should  not  weigh  more  than 


FIG.  62 — THE  SUBSURFACE  PACKER 

100  pounds  to  the  foot  of  width.     If  intelligently  used, 

the  roller  is  no  doubt  a  valuable  implement  to  the  average 

farm.    $ 

128.  The  common  planker,  although  a  home-made  tool, 

is  a  very  valuable  imple- 
ment for  crushing  clods 
and  smoothing  the  sur- 
face. It  is  not  inclined  to 
push  surface  clods  into 
the  soil  like  the  roller, 
but  will  catch  them  and 
pulverize  them.  The 
planker  does   not   adapt 

itself  well  to  any  unevenness  of  the  surface  and  does  not 

pack  the  soil  like  the  roller* 


FIG.    63 — THE    COMMON    PLANKER,    A 
SERVICEABLE   TOOL    USUALLY 
MADE   ON  THE  FARM 


TILLAGE   MACHINERY  9I 


THE  CULTIVATOR 

129.  Development. — 'The  modern  cultivator,  which  is  a  very 
efficient  aid  to  the  cultivation  of  growing  plants,  has  developed 
under  the  addition  of  animal  power  from  a  kind  of  crude  hoe 
used  in  the  early  days.  The  original  single  shovel  was  changed 
for  the  double  shovel,  this  in  turn  was  supplanted  by  the 
straddle-row  cultivator,  and  even  the  latter  was  increased  in 
size  until  in  some  cases  the  modern  cultivator  will  take  two 
rows  at  a  time.  A  horse  hoe  and  drill  was  invented  by  Jethro 
Tull  early  in  the  eighteenth  century,  but  this  was  never  a  popular 
machine.  Until  i860  country  blacksmiths  generally  made  the 
double  shovels  used  by  farmers.  A  patent  was  granted  to 
George  Esterly,  April  22,  1856,  on  a  straddle-row  cultivator  for 
two  horses,  and  his  was  the  first  of  the  line  of  implements  in 
the  manufacture  of  which  millions  are  now  invested. 

130.  Classification  of  cultivators. 

Single-  and  double-shovel  cultivators. 
One-horse  cultivators. 

Five-  and  nine-tooth  cultivators. 
Straddle-row  cultivators. 

Walking — 
Tongue, 
Tongueless. 

Riding. 

Combined. 

Single-row. 

Double-row. 

Surface  cultivators. 

131.  Single-  and  double-shovel  cultivators,  although 
used  very  extensively  at  one  time,  have  their  use  con- 
fined almost  entirely  to  garden  and  cotton  culture. 

132.  The  one-horse  cultivator  is  used  largely  in  gar- 
dening and  for  cultivating  corn  too  high  to  be  cultivated 
with  the  straddle-row  cultivator.  It  may  be  provided 
with  almost  any  number  of  teeth  from  5  to  14.  The  teeth 
may  vary  from  the  harrow  tooth  designed  for  producing 
a  very  fine  tilth,  to  the  wide  reversibxC  shovels  used  on 


92  FARM    MACHINERY 

the  five-tooth  cultivators.     Also  a  spring  tooth  may  be 
used  similar  to  those  used  on  the  spring-tooth  harrow. 

133.  Features  of  cultivators,  with  suggestions  in  regard 
to  selection. — The  gangs  (sometimes  called  rigs)  are  the 
beams,  shanks,  and  shovels.  Usually  several  styles  of 
gangs  may  be  fitted  to  each  cultivator.  The  shovels  may 
vary  in  number  from  four  to  eight  for  a  pair  of  gangs. 
The  larger  number  is  to  be  preferred  for  producing  the 


FIG.  64. — FIVE-  AND  ELEVEN-TOOTH  ONE-HORSE  CULTIVATORS.      EACH    HA<3 

A  LEVER  FOR  VARYING  THE  WIDTH,  AND  ALSO  GAUGE  WHEELS. 

ONE  HAS  A  SMOOTHING  ATTACHMENT 

proper  tilth  of  the  ground,  but  are  very  troublesome  in 
being  easily  clogged  with  trash.  The  six-shovel  gangs 
are  very  popular  for  corn  culture.  The  eight-shovel 
gangs  may  have  each  set  of  four  shovels  arranged  either 
obiquely  or  in  what  is  called  a  zigzag.  Best  cultivator 
shovels  are  made  of  soft-center  steel.  They  are  made  of 
almost  any  width,  and  may  be  straight  or  twisted.  The 
twisted  shovel  has  a  plow  shape  designed  to  throw  the 
dirt  to  one  side  or  the  other,  while  the  straight  shovel 
must  be  adjusted  on  its  shank  to  do  this.  The  beam  may 
be  made  of  wood,  steel  channel,  flat  bar,  or  pipe.  The 
wood  beam  is  somewhat  lighten  but  not  so  strong  or 


J 


TILLAGE    MACHINERY  93 

durable.  The  shanks  may  be  constructed  of  the  same 
material  as  the  beam  and  are  provided  either  with  a 
break-pin  device  or  knuckle  joint  to  prevent  breakage 
when  an  obstruction  is  struck. 

Flat  springs  may  be  used  for  the  shanks,  and  when  so 
used  the  term  spring  tooth  is  applied.  Gopher  shovels 
are  arranged  to  take  the  place  of  a  special  surface  culti- 
vator. Such  an  arrangement  is  not  generally  satisfactory. 
A  device  is  sometimes  added  to  keep  the  shovels  facing 
directly  to  the  front.  Such  a  gang  is  spoken  of  as  having 
a  parallel  beam. 

Seats  are  of  two  styles :  the  hammock  and  the  straddle. 
The  hammock  seat  is  supported  by  the  frame  at  each 
side  and  offers  a  good  opportunity  to  guide  the  gangs 
with  the  feet.  The  straddle  seat  is  more  rigid,  hence  is 
well  adapted  to  the  treadle-  or  lever-guided  cultivators. 

The  pivotal  tongue  is  a  device  enabling  the  operator  to 
vary  the  angle  with  which  the  tongue  is  attached  to  the 
cultivator  frame.  It  may  be  used  as  a  steering  device, 
or  to  set  the  tongue  at  such  an  angle  that  the  cultivator 
will  not  follow  directly  behind  the  team.  It  is  very  use- 
ful in  side  hill  work  where  the  cultivator  tends  to  crowd 
down  the  hill.  It  may  also  be  used  in  turning  in  a 
limited  space. 

The  expanding  axle  permits  the  width  of  track  to  be 
varied,  necessary  on  account  of  various  widths  of  rows. 
It  is  accomplished  by  a  divided  steel  axle  or  by  the  use 
of  collars  upon  the  axles.  The  divided  axle  permits  of 
the  use  of  the  inclosed  wheel  box.  It  is  an  advantage  to 
have  the  half  axles  reversible  in  that  when  the  axle  end 
becomes  worn  the  opposite  end  may  be  substituted. 

Spacing. — Some  provision  should  be  made  to  widen  or 
narrow  the  spacing  of  the  gangs  or  rigs.  On  single-row 
cultivators  this  is  accomplished  by.  slipping  the  couplings 


94  FARM    MACHINERY 

in  and  out  upon  the  front  arch.  The  spacing  in  two- 
row  machines  should  be  accomplished  by  a  lever  which 
permits  the  change  to  be  made  while  in  operation. 

Suspension. — The  gangs  should  be  so  suspended  as  to 
swing  freely  in  a  horizontal  plane.  If  the  point  of  sus- 
pension is  too  far  back  and  the  suspending  arm  or  chain 
too  short,  the  shovels  will  be  lifted  out  of  the  ground  as 


FIG.  65 — A  TONGUELESS  FOUR-SHOVEL  CULTIVATOR  WITH  W^OODEN  GANGS. 
THE  SHOVELS  ARE   NOT   IN    PLACE 

the  gang  is  carried  to  either  side.  The  farther  ahead  the 
gang  is  suspended  and  the  longer  the  suspending  arm, 
the  more  nearly  the  gang  will  swing  in  a  plane.  Con- 
siderable difference  is  experienced  in  the  ease  with  which 
a  long  gang  is  guided  compared  with  a  short  gang.  This 
is  due  to  the  fact  that  as  a  short  gang  is  swung  to  one 
side  more  work  is  done,  as  the  shovels  must  be  carried 
ahead ;  while  with  a  long  gang  the  shovels  are  not  carried 
ahead  to  such  an  extent. 

Coupling. — The  double  hinge  joint  by  which  the  culti- 
vator gang  is  attached  to  the  frame  is  called  the  coupling. 
Due  provision  should  be  found  in  the  coupling  for  taking 
up  wear.  It  is  impossible  to  guide  properly  a  gang  with 
much  lost  motion  in  the  coupling. 


I 


J 


TILLAGE    MACHINERY 


95 


Raise  of  rigs. — Springs  should  be  provided  to  aid  the 
operator  in  lifting  the  heavy  rigs.  Also  these  springs  are 
often  used  to  aid  in  forcing  the  shovels  into  the  ground. 

Levers. — In  riding  cultivators  the  lifting  levers  should 


FIG.  66 — A  RIDING  BALANCE-FRAME  FOUR-SHOVEL  CULTIVATOR  WITH  HAM- 
MOCK   SEAT    AND    STEEL   GANGS 


be  so  placed  as  to  be  easily  handled  from  the  seat.  In 
two-rov^  machines  it  is  very  essential  to  be  able  to  work 
each  gang  independently  in  raising  and  lov^ering.  In 
this  way  one  gang  may  be  freed  from  trash  without 
molesting  the  others. 

Balance  frame  is  a  name  applied  to  cultivators  so  con- 
structed that  the  position  of  the  wheels  may  be  so  ad- 
justed, either  by  a  lever  for  the  purpose  or  by  the  move- 
ment of  the  gangs,  as  to  balance  the  weight  of  the  driver 
and  cultivator  on  the  axle. 


96 


FARM    MACHINERY 


Cultivator  wheels  should  be  high  atid  provided  with 
wide  tires. 

Wheel  boxes. — A  notable  improvement  is  found  in  the 
dosing  of  the  ends  of  the  wheel  boxes,  making  it  possible 
to  keep  the  bearings  well  lubricated. 

The  spread  arch  is  a  device  to  cause  the  gangs  to  swing 
in  unison,  and  should  be  made  adjustable  in  width. 

Hitch. — It  is  a  great  advantage  to  have  the  height  of 
hitch  adjustable  to  horses  of  various  sizes. 


FIG.    67 — A    COMBINED    WALKING    AND    RIDING    SIX-SHOVEL    CULTIVATOR 

WITH    STRADDLE  SEAT  AND  TREADLE  GUIDE.      THE   HANDLES  TO 

BE  USED  WHEN   WALKING  ARE  NOT  ATTACHED 


Treadle  guide. — Upon  many  cultivators  a  device  has 
been  added  to  guide  the  gangs  as  a  whole  by  foot  levers. 


TILLAGE    MACHINERY 


97 


Such  a  device  is  called  a  treadle  guide,  and  is  often  a  very- 
desirable  feature. 

Pivotal  wheels  are  a  scheme  for  guiding  cultivators. 
The  wheels  may  be  connected  to  a  treadle  device  or  to  a 
lever  worked  by  the  hands.  This  plan  permits  of  an  easy 
control  of  the  cultivator. 


FIG.  68 — A  RIDING  SURFACE  CULTIVATOR 


A  walking,  tongueless  cultivator  with  four-shovel 
gangs  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  65.  The  tongueless  offers  one 
advantage  in  requiring  less  room  for  turning.  It  is  essen- 
tial that  the  team  work  very  evenly  to  do  good  work. 
Fig.  66  illustrates  a  balance-frame  six-shovel  riding  culti- 
vator with  a  hammock  seat.    The  wheels  may  be  drawn 


98 


FARM    MACHINERY 


back  by  a  lever  when  the  gangs  are  lifted  in  order  to  be 
more  directly  under  the  weight  and  prevent  the  tongue 
from  flying  up. 

The  combined  cultivator,  walking  and  riding,  is  illus- 
trated in  Fig.  67.  This  cultivator  has  a  straddle  seat  and 
a  balancing  lever  to  adjust  for  the  weights  of  different 
riders. 

The  surface,  or  the  gopher,  cultivator  (Fig.  68)  is  used 
for  surface  cultivation.    It  is  very  effective  in  destroying 


FIG.  69 — A  TWO-ROW  CULTIVATOR,  GUIDED  WITH   A  LEVER 


weeds  when  small,  conserving  the  soil  moisture,  and  does 
not  prune  the  corn  roots  when  working  close  to  the  corn. 

The  two-row  cultivator  is  the  latest  production  in  the 
line  of  cultivators.  It  is  a  very  useful  tool  v/here  farm 
labor  is  scarce,  and  will  do  very  creditable  work  for 
subsequent  cultivations  when  the  plants  are  of  some 
height.     Fig.  69  illustrates  a  cultivator  of  this  type. 

The  disk  cultivator  illustrated  in  Fig.  70  is  a  tool  which 
will  move  large  quantities  of  dirt  to  or  from  the  corn. 


TILLAGE  MACHINERY 


99 


It  IS  useful  on  this  account  for  covering  large  weeds. 
Fig.  71  illustrates  the  eagle-claw  gang,  or  the  usual  ar- 
rangement of  shovels  in  the  eight-shovel  cultivator. 


FIG.  70 — A  DISK  CULTIVATOR 


134.     Listed    corn    cultivators. — For    localities    where 
the  listing  of  corn  is  practiced,  a  cultivator  has  been 


FIG.  71 — ^AN  EAGLE-CLAW  FOUH-SHOVEL  GANG 


100 


FARM   MACHINERY 


designed  to  follow  the  listed  furrow  for  the  first  two 
cultivations.      The    machine    is    guided    either   by    sled 

runners  or  roller  wheels 
which  run  in  the  furrow. 
The  shovel  equipment 
varies  between  shovels 
and  disks.  The  cultivator 
is  made  for  one  or  two 
rows,  and  is  a  very  suc- 
cessful tool. 

135.  Stalk  cutter. — An 
implement  in  general  use 
in  corn  and  cotton  regions  and  which  should  be  men- 
tioned here  is  the  stalk  cutter.  Its  purpose  is  to  cut 
cotton  and  corn  stalks  when  "left  in  the  field  into  such 
lengths  as  not  to  interfere  with  the  cultivation  of  the  next 
crops.  The  implement  primarily  consists  in  a  cylinder 
with  five  to  nine  radial  knives.    It  is  rolled  over  the  stalks. 


FIG.  72 — A  SIMPLE  LISTED  CORN  CUL- 
TIVATOR. DISKS  ARE  OFTEN  USED  IN 
PLACE  OF  THE  SCRAPERS.  THE  IM- 
PLEMENT IS  ALSO  MADE  TO  CULTI- 
VATE TWO  ROW^S  AT  A  TIME 


FIG.  TZ — ^A  SINGLE-ROW  STALK  CUTTER 


TILLAGE    MAGHINJvRy  ,  lOI 

cutting  them  into  short  lengths.  Stalk  hooks  are  pro- 
vided which  gather  the  stalks  in  front  of  the  cylinder. 
Two  types  are  found  upon  the  market,  the  spiral  and  the 
straight  knife  cutters.  The  spiral  knife  cutter  carries 
practically  all  of  the  weight  of  the  machine  on  the  cylin- 
der head  while  in  operation,  the  side  wheels  being  raised 
and  the  cylinder  head  brought  in  contact  with  the  ground. 
Stiaight  knife  cutters  have  the  cylinder  head  mounted  in 
a  frame,  and  when  placed  in  operation  are  forced  to  the 
ground  with  spring  pressure.  The  latter  machine  is  much 
more  pleasant  to  operate,  as  it  rides  more  smoothly. 
Some  cutters  are  equipped  with  reversible  knives  with 
two  edges  sharpened.  A  stalk  cutter  attachment  is  made 
for  a  cultivator  carriage.  The  implement  in  general  may 
be  had  as  a  single-  or  double-row  machine. 


CHAPTER  VI 
SEEDING  MACHINERY 

Seeders  and  Drills 

136.  Development. — Seeding  by  hand  was  practiced  universally 
until  the  middle  of  the  last  century.  Seed  was  either  dropped 
in  hills  and  covered  with  the  hoe,  or  broadcasted  and  covered 
with  a  harrow  or  a  similar  implement.  In  fact,  in  certain 
localities  in  the  United  States  hand  dropping  is  practiced  to 
some  extent  at  the  present  time.  Broadcasting  seed  by  hand  is 
practiced  in  many  places. 

A  sort  of  drill  plow  was  developed  in  Assyria  long  before  the 
Christian  era.  Nothing  definite  is  known  of  this  tool,  but  it 
was  evidently  one  of  the  crude  plows  of  the  time  fitted  with 
a  hopper,  from  which  the  seed  was  led  to  the  heel  of  the  plow 
and  drilled  into  the  furrow.  Just  how  the  seed  was  fed  into 
the  tube  we  do  not  know.  The  Chinese  claim  the  use  of  a 
similar  tool  3,000  or  4,000  years  ago. 

Jethro  Tull  was  perhaps  the  first  to  develop  an  implement 
which  in  any  way  resembles  our  modern  drill.  In  1731  he  pub- 
lished a  work  entitled  "Horse  Hoeing  Husbandry,"  in  which  he 
set  forth  arguments  to  the  effect  that  grain  should  not  be  broad- 
casted, but  should  be  drilled  in  rows  and  cultivated.  This  is, 
in  a  measure,  like  the  system  promulgated  by  Campbell,  and 
which  bears  his  name.  Tull  designed  a  machine  which  would 
drill  three  rows  of  turnips  or  wheat  at  a  time.  He  used  a  coulter 
as  a  furrow  opener  and  planted  seed  at  three  dififerent  depths 
His  reason  for  this  was  that  if  one  seeding  failed,  the  others 
coming  up  later  would  be  sure  to  be  successful.  Tull,  like  many 
others  who  spent  their  lives  in  invention,  died  poor,  but  he  was 
successful  in  developing  a  line  of  drills,  horse-hoes,  and  culti- 
vators. 

American  development. — The  first  patent  granted  to  an  Ameri- 
can was  that  Eliakim  Spooner  in  1799.  Nothing  remains  to 
tell  us  of  the  nature  of  this  device.    Many  other  patents  followed 


SEEDING    MACHINERY  IO3 

the  first,  but  none  are  worthy  of  mention  until  a  patent  was 
granted  to  J.  Gibbons,  of  Adrian,  Michigan,  August  25,  1840. 
Gibbons's  patent  was  upon  the  feeding  cavities  and  a  device  for 
regulating  the  amount  delivered.  A  year  later  he  patented  a 
cylindrical  feeding  roll  with  different-sized  cavities. 

M.  and  S.  Pennock,  of  East  Marlboro,  Pennsylvania,  obtained 
a  patent  March  12,  1841,  for  an  improvement  in  cylindrical  drills. 
The  patent  pertained  to  throwing  in  and  out  of  gear  each  seeding 
cylinder,  and  also  to  throwing  the  machine  in  and  out  of  gear 
while  in  operation.  These  men  manufactured  their  drill  and 
sold  it  in  considerable  quantities. 

Following  the  patent  issued  to  the  Pennock  brothers  came  a 
long  list  of  patents  upon  "slide"  and  "force-feed"  drills.  Slide 
drills  are  distinguished  from  the  others  in  that  a  slide  is  pro- 
vided to  vary  the  size  of  the  opening  through  which  the  seed 
has  to  pass,  and  in  this  way  the  amount  of  seed  sown  is  varied. 
Force-feed  drills  carry  the  seed  from  the  seed  box  in  cavities 
in  the  seed  cylinder,  in  which  the  amount  is  varied  either  by 
varying  the  size  of  seed  pockets  or  by  varying  the  speed  of  the 
seed  cylinder. 

The  first  patent  upon  a  force-feed  grain  drill  was  issued 
November  4,  1851,  to  N.  Foster,  G.  Jessup,  H.  L.  and  C.  P. 
Brown,  and  was  the  introduction  of  the  term  force  feed.  In 
1854  the  Brown  brothers  incorporated  as  the  Empire  Drill  Com- 
pany and  established  a  factory  at  Shortsville,  New  York.  In 
1866  C.  P.  Brown  devised  and  patented  a  modification  which 
has  been  known  ever  since  as  the  "single  distributer."  One  of 
Brown's  employees,  in  connection  with  a  Mr.  Beckford,  removed 
to  Macedonia,  New  York,  and  in  1867  took  out  several  patents 
which  presented  the  "double  distributer."  The  double  distributer 
was  a  seed  wheel  with  a  flange  on  each  side,  one  with  large 
cavities  and  the  other  with  small  to  suit  the  different  sizes  of 
grain.  This  system  was  adopted  by  the  Superior  Drill  Com- 
pany, of  Springfield,  Ohio.  In  1877  a  patent  was  granted  to  J.  P. 
Fulghum  for  a  device  for  varying  the  length  of  the  cavities  of 
the  seed  cylinder,  and  thus  varying  the  amount  of  seed  drilled. 
This  principle  is  now  used  by  many  manufacturers. 

The  first  drills  were  provided  with  hoes,  but  later  a  shoe  was 
found  to  be  more  satisfactory.  Perhaps  the  shoe  was  introduced 
by  Brown,  who  devised  the  shoe  for  corn  planters. 


I04 


FARM    MACHINERY 


137.  Classification  of  seeders. 

Broadcast  seeders : 
Hand,  rotating  distributer. 
Wheelbarrow. 

End-gate,  rotating  distributer. 
Wheeled  broadcast: 

Wide  track.    Narrow  track. 

Agitator  feed.    Force  feed. 
Combination  with  cultivator. 
Combination  with  disk  harrow. 

138.  The  hand  seeder  with  rotating  distributer  consists 
of  a  star-shaped  wheel  which  is  given  a  rapid  rotation 
either  by  gearing  from  a  crank  or  by  a  bow,  the  string 
of  which  is  given  one  wrap  around  the  spindle  of  the 


FIG.    74 — A    CRANK    HAND    SEEDER.       SEEDERS    OF    THIS    KIND    ARE    ALSO 
OPERATED  WITH   A  BOW 

distributing  wheel.  Fig.  74  shows  a  seeder  of  this  order. 
A  bag  is  provided  with  straps  which  may  be  carried  from 
the  shoulders  and  the  distributing  mechanism  placed  at 
the  bottom.  The  use  of  this  seeder  is  confined  to  small 
areas,  and  the  uniformity  of  its  distribution  of  the  seed 
is  not  the  best. 


J 


SEEDING   MACHINERY 


105 


139.  The  wheelbarrow  seeder  is  used  to  some  extent 
for  the  sowing  of  grass  seed,  and  seems  to  be  the  survivor 
of  this  type  of  seeder,  which  was  at  one  time  used  exten- 


FIG.  75 — A  WHEELBARROW  SEEDER 

sively  in  England.  A  vibrating  rod  passes  underneath 
the  box  and  by  stirring  causes  the  seed  to  flow  out  of  the 
openings  on  the  under  side  of  the  seed  box. 

140.  The  end-gate  seeder  is  provided  with  a  Rotating 
or  whirling  distributer  much  like  the  hand  machine  first 
described.     Formerly  nearly  all  of  this  type  of  machine 


FIG.   '^d — AN  END-GATE  SEEDER  WITH   A   FORCE  FEED  AND  FRICTION  GEAR* 
ING.     THIS   MACHINE  HAS  TWO  SEED  DISTRIBUTcitS 


io6 


FARM    MACHINERY 


had  only  one  distributer,  but  now  the  better  makes  are 
provided  with  two  and  a  force-feed  device  to  convey  the 
seed  to  the  distributer.  Power  to  operate  the  seeder  is 
obtained  from  a  sprocket  bolted  to  one  wheel  of  the 
wagon  on  which  the  seeder  is  mounted,  and  transmitted 
to  the  seeder  with  a  chain.  The  distributer  is  geared 
either  by  bevel  or  friction  gears.  It  is  stated  that  the 
friction  gear  relieves  the  strain  on  the  machine  when 
starting,  and  also  runs  noiselessly.    The  bevel  gear  drive 


Mt^^l^'^^^^^^^^^^llT^^^^^^^d^^T^^^^Al 


mxumii  ir 


FIG.  77 — AN  AGITATOR-FEED  BROADCAST  SEEDER  WITH   CULTIVATOR  COVER- 
ING SHOVELS.      THIS  IS  A  WIDE-TRACK  MACHINE 


is  more  durable  and  is  recommended  as  being  preferable 
by  manufacturers  who  manufacture  both  styles  of  gears. 
The  same  criticism  may  be  made  of  this  machine  as 
of  the  hand  machine.  The  distribution  of  the  seed  is  not 
the  best,  and  great  accuracy  in  seeding  is  not  possible. 
As  the  seeder  is  high  above  the  ground,  the  wind  hinders 
the  operation  of  the  machine  to  such  an  extent  as  to 
prevent  its  use  in  anything  but  a  light  wind  or  calm.  In 
order  to  secure  greater  accuracy,  the  seed  in  some  makes 
is  fed  to  the  distributer  by  a  force-feed  device.  A  small 
seeder  of  this  type  has  been  arranged  to  be  placed  upon 


SEEDING    MACHINERY 


107 


a  cultivator  to  sow  a  strip  of  ground  the  width  of  the 
cultivator  as  the  ground  is  cultivated.  This  seeder  has 
not  as  yet  reached  an  extended  use. 

141.  Agitator  feed. — A  broadcast  seeder  is  still  upon  the 
market  not  provided  with  a  force  feed,  but  having  what 
is  known  as  an  agitator  feed.  This  feed  is  composed  of 
a  series  of  adjustable  seed  holes  or  vents  in  the  bottom 
of  the  hopper,  and  over  each  is  an  agitator  or  stirring 
wheel  to  keep  the  seed  holes  open  and  pass  the  seed  to 
them.  The  agitator  feed,  although  cheaper  and  more 
simple  than  others,  is  not  so  accurate  as  the  force  feed 
described  later. 

Fig.  yy  illustrates 'a  broadcast  seeder  with  an  agitator 
feed  and  cultivator  gangs  attached.  This  seeder  is 
usually  used  without  any  covering  device ;  however,  it 
may  be  procured  with  the  cultivator  gangs  or  with  a 
spring-tooth  harrow  attachment. 


FIG.   78 — A  FORCE-FEED  DEVICE.      THE  FEED  IS  VARIED  BY  EXPOSING    MORE 

OR  LESS   OF  THE  FLUTED   FEED   SHELL 


142.  Force-feed  seeders  and   drills  derive  their  name 
from  the  manner  in  which  the  grain  is  carried  from  the 


io8 


FARM    MACHINERY 


seed  box.    A  feed  shell  is  provided  which  is  attached  to 
a  revolving  shaft  receiving  its  motion  from  the  main  axle. 

Fig.  78  shows  the  most  com- 
mon force-feed  device.  In 
the  fluted  cylinder,  the  de- 
vice illustrated,  the  feed  is 
regulated  by  exposing  more 
or  less  of  the  cylinder  to  the 
grain.  The  feed  shell  is  also 
designed  in  other  ways.  The 
seed  cells  may  be  on  the  inside  and  without  any  means 
of  regulating  the  size  of  the  cell.  The  feed  or  the  amount 
of  seed  is  regulated  by  varying  the  speed  of  the  shaft 
carrying  the  feed  shells  by  gearing  as  shown  in  Fig.  80. 


FIG.   79 — ANOTHER  TYPE  OF  FORCE 
FEED 


FIG.  80 — A  FEED-REGULATING  DEVICE  USED  IN  CONNECTION  WITH  A  FORCE 
FEED  SIMILAR  TQ  THAT   SHOWN   IN  FIG.   79 


SEEDING    MACHINERY  IO9 

In  order  to  handle  successfully  seeds  of  different  size, 
the  feed  shell  is  made  with  two  flanges  with  seed  cells 


FIG.   »I — A   FORCE-FEED   BROADCAST    SEEDER    WITH   NARROW-TRACK  TRUCK 


of  different  sizes  in  each.     The  cells  best  suited  to  the 
grain  drilled  are  used,  while  the  others  are  covered. 
143.  Width  of  track. — Broadcast  seeders  are  now  made 


FIG.   82 — A  COMBINED  DISK    HARROW   AND   SEEDER.      THIS    MACHINE   MAY 
ALSO  BE  SET  TO  DRILL  FROM  SEED  SPOUTS  AT  THE  REAR 


no  FARM    MACHINERY 

with  either  wide  or  narrow  track.  Perhaps  the  wide 
track  is  the  stronger  construction  and  permits  of  higher 
wheels,  but  the  narrow  track  permits  of  greater  ease  in 
turning  and  there  is  not  the  tendency  to  whip  the  horses* 
shoulders  as  with  the  wide  track. 

144.  Combination  seeders.  —  Broadcast  seeders  with 
cultivator  and  spring-tooth  harrow  attachments  have 
been  referred  to.  A  popular  tool  now  is  the  seeder  at- 
tachment for  the  disk  harrow.  This  attachment  resem- 
bles very  closely  the  force-feed  broadcast  seeder  mounted 
above  each  of  the  harrow  sections,  and  is  operated  by 
suitable  sprocket  wheels  and  chain  from  the  main  shaft 
of  the  disk.  By  the  use  of  this  tool  two  tools  may  be 
combined  in  one.  The  disk  gangs,  owing  to  their  tend- 
ency to  slip  occasionally,  do  not  make  an  entirely  satis- 
factory drive.  This  is  especially  true  in  trashy  ground. 
To  surmount  this  difficulty,  combination  seeders  are 
made  with  a  follower  wheel  to  drive  the  seeder. 

DRILLS 

Drills  are  provided  with  a  force  feed  much  like  those 
used  upon  seeders,  but  are  distinguished  from  each  other 
in  the  type  of  furrow  opener  and  covering  devices  used. 

145.  Classification  of  drills. 

Furrow  openers: 
Hoe. 
Shoe. 

Single-disk. 
Double-disk. 

Covering  devices: 

Chains. 

Press  wheels. 

Press  wheel  attachment. 
Interchangeable  disk  and  shoe  drills. 

146.  The  hoe  drill  was  the  first  to  be  developed,  and 
it   is   not   difficult   to   see   why   this    should   be.     The 


SEEDING   MACHINERY 


III 


hoes  are  provided  with  break  pins  or  spring  trips 
in  order  that  they  may  not  be  broken  when  striking  an 
obstruction.  These  trip  devices  resemble  very  much 
those  used  upon  cultivators.  The  hoe  drill  has  good 
penetration,  but  clogs  badly  with  trash.  It  is  used 
extensively  as  a  five-hoe  drill  for  drilling  in  corn 
ground  between  rows  of  standing  corn. 

147.  The  shoe  drill  came  into  use  about  1885  and  has 
many  advantages  over  the  hoe  drill.  In  fact,  it  was  used 
almost  entirely  until  the  more  recent  development  in  the 
nature  of  the  disk  drill.  Fig.  83  illustrates  a  shoe  drill 
with  high  press  wheels.  The  shoes  are  pressed  into  the 
ground  with  either  flat  or  coil  springs,  which  permit  an 
independent  action  and  prevent  to  a  certain  extent  clog- 
ging with  trash.  It  is  claimed  that  flat  springs  do  not 
tire  as  readily  as  coil  springs,  but  coil  springs  seem  to  be 
almost  universally  used. 


FIG.  83 — A  LOW-DOWN  PRESS  DRILL  WITH  SHOE  FURROW  OPENERS 


112 


^ARM    MACHINERY 


148.  Disk  drills  are  the  more  recent  development  and 
consist  of  two  classes :  those  with  single-  and  double- 
disk  furrow  openers.  In  the  single-disk  type  the  disk  is 
formed  much  like  those  used  on  disk  harrows.  Some 
form  of  heel  or  auxiliary  shoe  is  provided  to  insert  the 
grain  in  the  bottom  of  the  furrow  made.  It  is  desirable 
that  the  passage  for  the  seed  be  so  arranged  that  there 
can  be  but  little  chance  for  it  to  become  clogged  with 
dirt.  The  furrow  opener  that  allows  the  seed  to  come 
into  direct  contact  with  the  disk  is  not  to  be  advised,  but 
an  inclosed  boot  should  be  provided  to  lead  the  seed  into 
the  bottom  of  the  furrow.  Some  ingenuity  is  displayed 
by  different  makers  in  securing  the  desired  results  in 
this  respect.  In  some  drills  the  grain  is  led  through  the 
center  of  the  disk.    The  single-disk  may  be  given  some 


FIG.  84 — A  STANDARD  SINGLE-DISK  DRILL  WITH  A  PRESS-WHEEL  ATTACH- 
MENT.    THE  STEEL  RIBBON  SEED  TUBES  ARE  ALSO  SHOWN 


SEEDING   MACHINERY 


"3 


suction,  and  therefore  has   more  penetration  than  any- 
other  form  of  disk  opener,  fitting  it  especially  for  hard 


FIG.     85 — ^THE     HOE,     DOUBLE-DISK,      SI  XGLE-DISK,     AND      SHOE     FURROW 

OPENERS  USED  ON  DRILLS.     THESE  ARE  OFTEN  MADE 

INTERCHANGEABLE 


114  FARM    MACHINERY 

and  trashy  ground.  The  single  disk  has  one  objection, 
and  that  is  that  it  tends  to  make  the  ground  uneven,  since 
the  soil  is  thrown  in  only  one  direction. 

The  double-disk  furrow  opener  has  two  disks,  or  really 
coulters,  as  they  are  flat  and  their  action  is  much  like  that 
of  the  shoe.  One  disk  usually  precedes  the  other  by  a 
short  distance.  The  double-disk  has  not  the  penetration 
of  the  single-disk,  but  will  not  ridge  the  ground  as  the 
single-disk  does.  They  often  have  another  bad  feature 
in  that  they  allow  dry  dirt  to  fall  on  the  seed,  and  hence 
prevent  early  germination.  The  single-disk  drill  does 
more  to  improve  the  tilth  of  the  ground  than  any  other 
furrow  opener.  The  fact  that  a  slight  ridge  is  left  in  the 
center  of  the  furrow  with  the  double-disk  is  considered 
by  some  an  advantage,  as  the  seed  is  better  distributed; 
in  fact,  two  rows  are  planted  instead  of  one. 

149.  Interchangeable  parts. — Most  manufacturers  now 
design  their  drills  in  such  a  way  that  any  one  of  the 
various  styles  of  furrow  openers  may  be  used.  Fig.  85 
shows  furrow  openers  which  may  be  used  on  the  same 
drill. 

150.  Press  wheels. — Not  a  few  years  ago  drills  were 
equipped  to  a  large  extent  with  press  wheels,  but  now 
they  are  not  so  popular.  The  press  wheel,  when  sufficient 
pressure  can  be  applied,  is  evidently  a  very  good  thing, 
as  the  earth  is  compacted  around  the  seed  and  the 
moisture  is  drawn  up  to  the  seed,  causing  early  germina- 
tion. The  pressure  upon  each  press  wheel  must  neces- 
sarily be  very  small,  as  most  of  the  weight  of  the  drill  is 
required  to  force  the  furrow  openers  into  the  ground,  and 
the  balance  is  to  be  divided  over  a  number  of  press 
wheels.  It  is  not  an  uncommon  thing  to  see  an  old  drill 
running  with  some  of  the  press  wheels  entirely  off  of  the 
ground.    Drills  have  been  made  in  two  distinct  types,  one 


SEEDING   MACHINERY  1 15 

known  as  the  standard  drill  with  the  large  wheels  at  the 
end  of  the  seed  box  and  equipped  with  small  press  wheels, 
and  another  where  large  press  wheels  were  used  and  the 
large  wheels  at  the  end  of  the  seed  box  dispensed  with, 
which  is  spoken  of  as  a  low-down  drill. 

151.  Press-wheel  attachment. — In  order  to  make  their 
machine  become  more  universal,  manufacturers  have  pro- 
vided press-wheel  attachments  for  those  who  wish  them, 
and  they  are  detachable  and  do  not  interfere  with  the 
use  of  the  drill  whether  with  or  without  them.  It  is  to 
be  mentioned  here  that  the  drill  has  many  conditions  to 
meet,  and  a  drill  which  will  do  satisfactory  work  in  one 
section  may  not  in  another.  Thus  in  a  wheat  territory, 
where  the  ground  is  not  plowed  every  year  a  drill 
with  great  penetration  is  needed.  In  other  sections 
where  the  ground  is  carefully  prepared  this  particular 
feature  is  not  so  important.  Press-wheel  attachments  are 
a  nuisance  in  turning,  and  it  is  out  of  the  question  to  back 
the  machine. 

152.  Covering  chains. — Chains  are  often  provided  to 
follow  after  the  furrow  openers,  and  their  sole  purpose  is 
to  insure  a  covering  of  the  grain. 

Formerly  the  grain  tube  or  the  spouts  which  convey 
the  grain  to  the  furrow  opener  were  made  of  rubber,  but 
the  best  used  at  the  present  time  are  made  either  of  steel 
wire,  or,  still  better,  steel  ribbon. 

153.  Disk  drills. — Indications  point  toward  the  dis- 
placement of  all  forms  of  furrow  openers  by  the  single- 
disk  opener.  The  single-disk  will  meet  nearly  all  of  the 
many  conditions  to  be  encountered.  The  double-disk  is 
not  much  better  in  many  respects  than  the  shoe.  The 
single-disk  has  good  penetration,  and  besides  is  especially 
well  adapted  to  cut  its  way  through  trash.  Against  it 
stand  two  objections:  One  is  that  there  is  a  tendency  for 


ii6 


FARM    MACniNERV 


it  to  clog  when  the  ground  is  wet,  and  the  other  is  its 
weak  point,  the  bearing.  With  the  shoe  drill,  the  wear  is 
upon  the  shoe  itself,  but  with  the  disk  there  is  a  spindle, 
and  being  so  close  to  the  surface  of  the  soil,  it  is  in  a  bad 
place  to  keep  free  from  dirt  and  to  lubricate.  The  bear- 
ings in  use  consist  almost  universally  of  chilled  iron. 
Wood  has  proved  itself  to  be  especially  well  adapted  for 


FIG.  86 — A  STANDARD   SINGLE-DISK  DRILL  WITH   COVERING   CHAINS 


a  place  of  this  kind,  but  does  not  seem  to  be  used.  At 
any  rate,  in  the  purchase  of  a  drill  a  close  inspection 
should  be  made  of  the  bearings  to  see  that  they  are  so 
designed  as  to  give  a  large  wearing  surface,  to  be  as 
nearly  as  possible  dust  proof,  and  to  be  provided  with  the 
proper  kind  of  oil  cups  or  other  device  for  oiling. 

154.  Distance  between  furrow  openers. — Drills  are 
usually  made  5,  6,  or  7  inches  between  furrow  openers. 
Perhaps  6  inches  is  the  width  generally  used.    They  are 


SEEDING    MACHINERY  II7 

placed  14  to  i6  Inches  or  more  apart  in  the  Campbell 
system,  and  then  the  grain  cultivated  during  the  growing 
season.  It  is  thought  desirable  by  some  to  have  a  slight 
ridge  betv^een  the  rows  in  order  to  hold  the  snow  and  to 
protect  the  young  plant  seeded  in  the  fall  from  being 
affected  so  much  by  heaving.  The  action  of  the  wind  is 
to  wear  the  ridges  down,  and  in  this  way  tend  to  cultivate 
the  plants. 

155.  Horse  lift. — The  gangs  of  drills  are  very  heavy 
and  somewhat  difficult  to  handle  with  levers,  the  levers 
being  called  upon  to  force  the  furrow  openers  into  the 
ground  while  at  work.  To  assist  in  this  an  automatic 
horse  lift  is  provided  on  the  larger  drills. 

156.  Footboard. — To  replace  the  seat  a  footboard  is 
often  placed  on  the  drill.  The  operator  in  this  case  rides 
standing  and  is  in  a  convenient  position  to  dismount. 

157.  Grass-seed  attachment. — The  feed  shell  arranged 
for  drilling  the  larger  field  grains  does  not  have  the  refine- 
ment to  drill  grass  seed  with  accuracy.  It  is  often  desired 
to  drill  the  grass  seed  at  the  same  time  as  the  grain,  and 
good  results  cannot  be  had  by  mixing  and  drilling  to- 
gether. The  grass-seed  attachment  does  not  diflfer  much 
from  other  devices  except  in  size.  Grass-seed  attach-, 
ments  are  often  poorly  constructed  and  become  so  open 
as  to  prevent  their  use  after  a  few  years'  service. 

158.  Fertilizer  attachment. — Practically  all  drill  manu- 
facturers can  now  furnish  their  machines  with  an  attach- 
ment for  drilling  commercial  fertilizer  at  the  time  of 
seeding.  The  fertilizer  is  usually  fed  by  means  of  a  plain 
rotating  disk,  which  carries  the  fertilizer  out  from  under 
the  box.  The  seed  mechanism  will  not  work  with  ferti- 
lizer, as  there  is  a  great  tendency  to  corrode  on  the  part 
of  some  of  the  fertilizers. 

159.  The  five-hoe  or  disk  drill. — This  tool  is  used  for 


Il8  FARM    MACHINERY 

putting  fall  grain  in  corn  ground  while  the  corn  is  stand- 
ing. The  disk  drill  has  been  displacing  the  hoe  drill 
because  it  does  not  clog  as  easily  with  corn  leaves.  Fig. 
87  shows  a  five-disk  drill  with  a  footboard  so  arranged 
that  the  operator  may  ride  when  it  is  necessary  to  add 
his  weight  to  secure  greater  penetration. 

160.  Construction. — In  purchasing  a  drill  it  might  be 
well  to  investigate  the  construction.    The  implement,  be- 


ne.   87 — A    FIVE-DISK    DRILL   FOR    DRILLING   BETWEEN    CORN    ROWS.      THE 
CENTER  FURROW  OPENER  IS  A  DOUBLE  DISK 


cause  it  is  so  heavy  and  often  wide,  should  be  provided 
with  a  strong  frame.  Angle  bars  or  either  round  or 
square  pipes  are  used  to  make  the  main  frame.  The 
frames  are  often  provided  with  truss  rods  in  order  to 
stiffen  them  as  much  as  possible.  Some  of  the  heavier 
drills  are  now  made  with  tongue  trucks  much  like  disk 
harrows  referred  to  in  a  preceding  chapter.  They  are  a 
very  satisfactory  addition. 

161.  Draft  of  drills. — Drills  are  not  as  a  rule  light  of 
draft  for  the  number  of  horses  used.    The  following  re- 


SEEDING   MACHINERY  II9 

suits  are  given  from  experiments  made  at  the  Iowa  ex- 
periment station : 

Distance  Distance  Total 

Kind  of  Apart  at  No,  of  covered  Draft  Draft 

Drill  Disk  Drill  Rows  Disks  in  Feet  in  Pounds         per  Foot 

No.  4.     Double 8"  10  d.y  450  67.1 

No.  5.     Single 8"  10  d.-j  460  68.6 

Neither  of  the  above  drills  was  provided  with  any  form 
of  covering  device  other  than  chains.  It  is  to  be  noted 
from  the  above  tests  that  the  single-disk  drill  requires 
more  power  than  the  double-disk  in  pulverizing  the 
ground,  but  the  difference  is  small. 

162.  Calibration. — The  scales  or  gages  placed  upon 
drills  and  seeders  to  indicate  the  amount  of  seed  drilled 
per  acre  are  not  as  a  rule  to  be  depended  upon  for  great 
accuracy.  If  they  are  correct  at  first,  there  is  a  tendency 
for  them  to  become  inaccurate  as  the  drill  becomes  old. 
The  operator  should  make  calculations  of  the  ground 
drilled  and  the  amount  of  grain  used,  and  in  this  way 
check  the  scale  of  the  drill.  Drills  calibrated  have  shown 
the  scale  to  be  in  error  as  much  as  25  per  cent. 

163.  Clean  seed. — The  drill  is  displacing,  to  a  large  ex- 
tent, the  broadcast  seeder  because  the  farmer  desires  to 
place  all  of  the  seed  in  the  ground  and  at  the  proper 
depth.  With  the  broadcast  seeder,  where  various  meth- 
ods of  covering  of  the  seed  are  resorted  to,  the  seed  can- 
not be  covered  a  uniform  depth.  Practically  all  fall  seed- 
ing is  now  done  with  drills,  and  the  broadcasting  is  used 
for  the  seeding  of  spring  grains  alone.  Experiments  at 
the  Ohio,  Indiana,  North  and  South  Dakota  stations  give, 
without  an  exception,  better  results  from  drilling,  the  in- 
creased yields  for  the  drilling  being  from  2  to  5  bushels. 
In  order  to  have  a  drill  do  its  best  work,  great  stress 
should  be  laid  upon  the  fact  that  all  grain  should  be  clean 


I20  FARM    MACHINERY 

and  especially  free  from  short  lengths  of  weed  stems, 
which  are  often  found  in  grain  as  it  comes  from  the 
threshing  machine.  These  stems  or  pieces  of  straw 
may  lodge  in  the  feedway  and  prevent  the  grain  from 
getting  into  the  seed  wheel. 

CORN   PLANTERS 

164.  Development. — Corn  planters  are  strictly  an  American 
invention.  This  is  not  strange,  for  corn,  or  maize,  is  peculiarly 
an  American  crop.  The  development  of  the  planter  has  also  been 
recent;  not  much  over  50  years  have  elapsed  since  the  planter 
has  been  made  a  success.  The  Indians  were  the  first  to  culti- 
vate corn,  but  they  never  had  anything  but  the  most  primitive 
of  tools.  Until  the  development  of  the  horse  machine,  corn  was 
almost  universally  planted  and  covered  by  means  of  the  hoe, 
and  in  localities  where  a  very  limited  amount  of  corn  is  grown 
the  method  is  followed  to-day. 

The  first  machines  used  for  seeding  were  universal  in  the 
respect  that  they  were  used  for  the  smaller  grains  as  well  as 
corn.  Perhaps  the  first  patent  granted  on  what  may  be  styled 
a  corn  planter  was  given  March  12,  1839,  to  D.  S.  Rockwell.  In 
this  planter  may  be  seen  in  a  somewhat  primitive  form  some  of 
the  features  of  the  modern  planter.  The  furrow  openers  were 
vertical  shovels,  and  the  planter  was  supported  in  front  and  in 
the  rear  with  wheels  with  the  dimensions  of  rollers.  The  corn 
was  dropped  by  means  of  a  slide  underneath  the  box.  The 
jointed  frame  was  patented  by  G.  Mott  Miller  in  1843.  George 
W.  Brown,  of  Galesburg,  Illinois,  devoted  much  of  his  time  to 
the  development  of  the  corn  planter  and  secured  patents  on 
many  features.  To  Brown's  efforts  is  credited  the  shoe  furrow 
opener,  the  rotary  drop,  and  a  method  of  operating  the  drop  by 
hand.  A  patent  on  a  marker  was  granted  to  E.  McCormick  in 
1855  as  a  device  projecting  from  the  end  of  the  axle.  The  present 
marker  was  set  forth  in  a  patent  secured  by  Jarvis  Case,  of  La- 
fayette, Indiana,  in  1857.  In  about  1892  the  Dooley  brothers,  of 
Moline,  Illinois,  brought  out  the  edge-selection  drop  used  ex- 
tensively on  the  more  recent  planters. 

165.  Development  of  the  check  rower.— It  seems  that  all  the 
early  planters  were  automatic,  in  that  an  operator  was  not 
needed  to  work  the  dropping  mechanism.    In  1851  a  patent  was 


SEEDING   MACHINERY 


121 


granted  to  E.  Corey,  of  Jerseyville,  Illinois,  for  a  device  to  mark 
the  point  where  the  corn  was  planted,  and  this  device  led  to 
the  use  of  a  marker  in  laying  off  fields  and  putting  the  hills  of 
corn  in  check.  Brown's  patent  previously  referred  to  was  the 
first  patent  to  cover  the  hand-dropping  idea.  M.  Robbins,  of 
Cincinnati,  patented  in  1857  a  checking  device  for  a  one-horse 
drill  using  a  jointed  rod  and  chain  pro- 
vided with  buttons  for  a  line.  The  check 
rower  was  developed  to  a  practical  de- 
vice by  the  Haworth  brothers.  The 
Haworth  was  for  a  long  time  the  stand- 
ard machine.  The  check  wire  in  this 
implement  was  made  to  travel  across  the 
machine.  Among  the  first  of  tbe  side- 
drop  check  rowers  was  the  Avery,  which 
became  at  one  time  very  popular.  Recent 
changes  in  check  rowers  have  been  con- 
fined to  reducing  the  amount  of  work 
done  by  the  machine. 

166.  Hand  planters  have  never 
come  into  any  extended  use,  as  they 
are  not  any  great  improvement  over 
the  hoe.  This  planter  is  made  now 
much  like  it  was  years  ago.  Fig.  88 
shows  the  common  style  and  is  used 
to  some  extent  in  replanting.  A 
slide  extends  from  one  handle  to  the 
other  and  passes  under  the  small 
seed  box.  When  the  slide  is  under 
the  box  a  hole  of  the  proper  size  is 
filled  with  the  desired  number  of 
grains.  When  the  handles  are 
opened  so  as  to  close  the  points  the  pic.  88— a  hand  corn 
hill  of  corn  is  drawn  from  under  the  planter,  the  corn 
J    ,  1     11         J   ^     i-  11         .1         IS  drawn  from  under 

seed   box  and  allowed  to  fall  to  the      the  seed  box  by  a 

point.    There  are  modifications  of  this      slide    upon    closing 

U        J       ^       J.         '  1-1  1.-  1         and       opening        THE 

hand  planter  m  which  a  plate  is  used      handles 


122 


FARM    MACHINERY 


and  made  to  revolve  by  pawls  which  act  by   opening  and 
closing  the  planter. 

167.  The  modern  planter. — Although  most  planters  are 
called  upon  to  do  about  the  same  work,  they  dififer  much 
in  construction.     The  essentials   of  a  good,   successful 


FIG.  89— A  MODERN  CORN  PLANTER  WITH  LONG  CURVED  FURROW  OPENERS, 
VERTICAL  CHECK   HEAD,   AND  OPEN    WHEELS 


planter  have  been  set  forth  as  follows:  (i)  It  must  be 
accurate  in  dropping  at  all  times ;  (2)  plant  at  a  uniform 
depth ;  (3)  cover  the  seed  properly ;  (4)  convenient  and 
durable;  and  (5)  simple  in  construction. 

168.  Drops. — The  early  planters  had  slides  or  plates  in 
which  holes  or  seed  cells  were  provided  which  were  large 
enough  to  hold  a  sufficient  number  of  kernels  to  make 
an  entire  hill  of  corn.     Planters  are  constructed  in  this 


SEEDING   MACHINERY 


123 


manner  and  offer  some  advantages  in  dropping  uneven 
seed.    This  style  of  drop  is  knov^n  as  the  full-hill  drop. 

The  cumulative  drop  was  the  result  of  an  effort  to  raise 
the  accuracy  of  dropping.  In  the  cumulative  drop  the 
grains  are  counted  out  separately  (a  seed  cell  being  pro- 
vided in  the  seed  plate  for  each  kernel)  until  a  hill  is 
formed,  the  theory  of  the  accuracy  being  that  there  is  less 
chance  for  one  less  or  more  kernels  when  the  cell  is  nearly 


FIG.  90 — THE  ROUND-HOLE 
SEED  PLATE 


FIG.  91 — THE  EDGE- SELECTION 
PLATE 


the  size  of  each  kernel,  while  in  the  larger  cell  three  small 
kernels  could  easily  make  room  for  the  fourth. 

169.  Plates. — The  round-hole  plate  is  a  flat  plate  with 
round  holes  for  seed  cells ;  hence  the  name.  The  round- 
hole  plate  may  belong  to  a  full-hill  or  a  cumulative  drop 
planter. 

The  edge-selection  or  edge  drop  plate  has  deep  narrow 
cells  arranged  on  its  outer  edge,  in  which  the  corn  kernel 
is  received  on  its  edge  (Fig.  91).  The  arguments  ad- 
vanced in  favor  of  this  plan  are  that  the  corn  kernel  is  more 
uniform  in  thickness  than  any  other  dimension,  and  owing 
to  the  depth  of  the  cells  is  not  so  apt  to  be  dislodged  by 
the  so-called  cut-off.  The  majority  of  planter  manufac- 
turers within  the  past  few  years  have  brought  out  an 


124  FARM    MACHINERY 

edge-selection  drop-plate  planter  and  claimed  great  accu- 
racy for  it.  Varieties  of  corn  differ  very  much  in  the 
width  of  kernel,  and  for  this  reason  provision  has  been 
made  by  at  least  one  manufacturer  to  vary  the  depth  of 
the  edge-selection  cell  by  substituting  grooved  bottoms 
to  the  seed  box  over  which  the  plate  travels.  A  device  is 
provided  with  the  flat  plate  for  the  same  purpose.  The 
outside  edge  of  the  cell  is  made  open,  into  which  a 
spring  fits,  excluding  all  but  one  kernel. 

170.  Plate  movement. — Plates  are  made  to  revolve  in 
a  horizontal  plane,  and  also  in  a  vertical  plane.  To  plates 
in  these  positions  the  names  of  horizontal  plate  and  verti- 
cal plate  are  given,  respectively. 

The  intermittent  plate  movement  is  one  where  the  plate 
is  revolved  until  a  hill  is  counted  out,  and  then  remains 
at  rest  until  put  in  motion  for  another  hill  by  the  check 
wire.  The  movement  may  belong  to  full-hill  or  cumu- 
lative drops.  The  argument  is  set  forth  that  the  seed  cells 
are  filled  to  better  advantage  by  this  intermittent  motion ; 
the  starting  and  stopping  will  shake  the  corn  into  the 
cells.  To  cause  the  seed  cells  to  fill  more  perfectly,  the 
kernels  are  prearranged  by  the  corrugations  and  the  slope 
of  the  seed-box  bottom. 

In  the  continuous  plate  movement  the  plates  are  driven 
from  the  main  axle  usually  by  a  chain  and  sprockets. 
While  the  plates  travel  continuously,  the  size  of  the  hill 
is  determined  by  a  valve  movement  which  opens  and 
closes  the  outlet  from  the  seed  plate.  To  produce  this 
movement,  two  clutches  with  double  cam  attachments, 
one  at  each  hopper,  are  used.  At  each  trip  of  the  planter 
the  dog  on  the  clutch  is  thrown  out,  and  it  turns  through 
one-half  revolution,  allowing  one  cam  to  pass ;  at  the  same 
time  the  arm  of  the  valve  glides  over  the  cam  and  opens 
the  outlet  to  the  hopper,  which  allows  the  corn  to  drop  from 


SEEDING    MACHINERY 


125 


each  cell  until  the  cam  passes  and  the  arm  drops,  closing 
the  valve.  Thus  the  length  of  this  cam  determines  the 
length  of  time  the  valve  is  open,  thereby  controlling  the 
number  of  kernels  in  the  hill.  Several  lengths  of  cams 
are  furnished  with  each  planter.  It  is  claimed  in  opposi- 
tion to  the  claim  set  forth  for  the  intermittent  movement 
that  the  cells  are  more  apt  to  be  filled,  for  they  are  in  con- 
tinuous motion  and  travel  a  greater  distance  under  the 
corn. 

171.  The  clutch. — In  the  early  planters  the  plate  was 
driven  entirely  by  the  check  wire.  With  each  button  the  plate 


Top  View 

FIG.   92 — THE   SEED-SHAFT  CLUTCH   WHICH    IS  THROWN   IN   GEAR   BY  THE 

CHECK    WIRE.      THE   POWER    TO   DRIVE  THE    SEED   SHAFT   THEN 

COMES  FROM  THE  MAIN  AXLE,  NOT  THE  CHECK  WIRE 

was  moved  just  far  enough  to  deposit  one  hill  in  the  seed 
tube.  When  the  cumulative  drop  was  developed,  a  means 
had  to  be  provided  to  rotate  the  plate  long  enough  to 
count  out  the  hill.    To  arrange  for  this,  the  button  was 


126 


FARM    MACHINERY 


made  to  throw  a  clutch  which  put  the  dropper  shaft  in 
connection  with  a  chain  drive  from  the  main  axle.  This 
clutch  remained  in  gear  for  one  revolution  of  the  shaft, 
which  is  equivalent  to  one-fourth  revolution  of  the  seed 
plate.  The  one-fourth  of  the  seed  plate  was  arranged 
with  enough  seed  cells  to  count  out  one  hill.  This  clutch 
may  be  made  to  operate  a  valve  which  will  permit  a  suffi- 


For  Hill  Drop 


Fixed  to  Drill 


FIG.  93- 


-A  TRIPLE  VALVE   MECHANISM    SHOWING   HOW  THE  CORN   IS   RE- 
LEASED AT  THE  HEEL  OF  THE  FURROW  OPENER 


cient  number  of  kernels  to  leave  the  plate  to  make  a  hill 
as  described  above.  The  clutch  has  relieved  the  check 
wire  of  a  large  portion  of  its  work.  It  is  only  required 
to  put  the  clutch  in  gear  and  to  open  the  valves  in  the 
shank.  The  clutch  is  one  of  the  vital  parts  of  the  planter, 
and  is  often  the  first  part  to  wear  out  and  give  trouble. 
Fig.  92  illustrates  a  planter  clutch. 

172.  Valves  are  divided  into  three  classes :  single,  double 
and  triple  valves.    The  single  valve  is  placed  in  the  heel  of 


SEEDING   MACHINERY 


127 


the  furrow  opener.  The  corn  may  be  either  caught  here 
a  single  grain  at  a  time  or  a  full  hill  at  a  time.  When  the 
check  wire  throws  the  valve  open  to  let  a  hill  out,  it 
closes  in  time  to  catch  the  next  hill. 

With  the  double  valve,  the  hill  is  caught  twice  in  its 
transit  from  the  seed  box  to  the  ground.  Fig.  93  shows 
one  style  of  triple-valve  arrangement. 

The  lower  valves  are  made  quite  close  to  the  ground 
and    arranged    to    discharge    backward    and    downward 


FIG.  94 — THE  STUB-RUNNER  FURROW   OPENER 


into  the  furrow  to  overcome  the  tendency  to  carry  the  hill 
on  and  make  uneven  checking. 

173.  Furrow  openers. — The  curved  runner  is  used  on  a 
large  majority  of  planters  as  a  furrow  opener.  It  is  easy 
to  guide,  but  will  not  penetrate  trash  or  hard  soil  as  well 
as  some  others.  The  curved  runner  is  illustrated  in 
Fig.  89. 

The  stub  runner  has  good  penetration  and  will  hook 
under  trash  and  let  it  drag  to  one  side  out  of  the  way. 


128 


FARM    MACHINERY 


There  Is  less  tendency  for  the  stub  runner  to  ride  over 
trash  than  the  curved  runner.  Fig.  94  shows  a  stub 
runner.  The  stub  runner  cannot  be  used  in  stony  or 
stumpy  land. 

The  single-disk  furrow  opener  has  good  penetration  and 
is  desired  in  some  localities  for  that  reason.  It  is  also 
better  adapted  to  trashy  ground,  the  disks  cutting  their 
way  through.    The  disks  may  or  may  not  reduce  draft; 


FIG.  95 — ^THE  SINGLE-DISK  FURROW  OPENER 


at  any  rate,  the  planter  is  not  a  heavy-draft  implement. 
Penetration  is  not  often  needed ;  more  often  the  planter 
has  a  tendency  to  run  too  deep.  The  single-disk  planter 
throws  the  soil  out  one  way,  and  it  is  difficult  for  the 
wheels  to  cover  the  seed.  The  disk  has  a  bearing  to  wear 
out,  which  the  runner  has  not. 

The  double  disk  cuts  through  trash  to  good  advantage, 
but  does  not  have  the  penetration  of  the  single  disk.    It 


SEEDING    MACHINERY 


129 


has  two  bearings  to  wear  out  to  each  furrow  opener.  It 
is  claimed  dry  dirt  falls  in  behind  the  disks  on  the  corn, 
preventing  early  germination.  All  disk  planters  are  very 
hard  to  guide.    They  do  not  follow  the  team  well. 


FIG.    96 — A   CORN    PLANTER    WITH    DOUBLE-DISK    FURROW    OPENERS,    OPEN 
WHEELS,    AND   HORIZONTAL  CHECK   HEADS 


174.  Planter  wheels  may  be  had  in  almost  any  height, 
from  very  low  wheels  to  those  high  enough  to  straddle 
listed  corn  ridges.    The  tire  may  be  flat,  concave,  or  open 

(Fig.  97)- 

The  flat  wheel  is  not  used  to  any  extent  on  planters 
to-day,  but  is  offered  for  sale  by  most  manufacturers. 
It  does  not  draw  the  soil  well  over  the  corn,  but 
leaves  this  hard  and  smooth  to  bake  in  the  sun,  and  gives 
the  water  a  smooth  course  to  follow  after  heavy  rains. 


I30 


FARM     MACHINERY 


The  concave  wheel  gathers  the  soil  better  than  the  flat 
wheel,  but  leaves  the  surface  smooth. 

The  open  wheel  is  now  used  to  a  larger  extent  than 
any  other  type.     It  has  good  gather,  covering  the  corn 


FIG.   97 — CORN-PLANTER   WHEELS    WITH    CONCAVE,  FLAT,   AND  OPEN   TIRE; 
ALSO   THE    DOUBLE   WHEEL 


well ;  the  ground  has  no  tendency  to  bake  over  the  corn, 
and  the  water  during  rains  is  carried  to  one  side  of  the 
track. 

The  double  wheel  consists  in  two  wheels  instead  of  one 
to  cover  the  corn,  and  may  be  set  with  more  or  less 
gather,  thus  being  able  to  cover  the  corn  under  all  con- 
ditions. 

175.  Fertilizer  attachment. — In  some  localities  it  is 
necessary  to  use  fertilizer  to  secure  an  early  and  quick 
growth  of  corn.  An  attachment  is  made  to  drop  fertilizer 
for  each  hill,  and  careful  adjustment  must  be  made  to 
drop  the  fertilizer  the  right  distance  from  the  hill.  If  too 
far  away,  it  will  not  give  immediate  benefits,  and  if  placed 
too  close,  will  rot  the  corn.  This  adjustment  is  difficult 
owing  to  the  difference  in  speeds  at  which  planters  are 
operated. 

176.  Marker. — Markers  are  made  in  two  styles,  the 
sliding  and  the  disk.  The  disk  has  proved  to  be  a  very 
satisfactory  marker. 


SEEDING  MACHINERY  I3I 

177.  Wire  reel. — Two  types  of  check  wire  reels  have 
been  developed:  one  to  reel  by  friction  contact  to  the 
planter  wheel,  and  one  to  reel  under  the  scat  with  a  chain 
to  the  main  axle,  using  a  friction  clutch  on  the  spool.  It 
is  claimed  to  be  desirable  to  wind  the  wire  on  a  solid, 
smooth  drum  rather  than  on  a  reel,  as  the  former  kinks 
the  wire  less. 

178.  Conveniences. — In  making  a  purchase  of  a  planter 
it  is  well  to  have  in  mind  the  conveniences  which  may  be 
had,  as  well  as  the  matter  of  strength,  durability,  and 
accuracy.  Convenience  in  turning  and  reeling  the  wire 
is  first  to  be  considered.  Another  advantage  offered  by 
some  planters  over  others  is  in  the  convenience  of 
changing  plates.  It  is  very  handy  to  have  a  seed  box 
which  may  be  tipped  over  and  emptied  without  picking 
the  seed  out  by  hand. 

The  planter  should  have  an  adjustable  tongue  by  which 
the  front  may  be  kept  level.  Unless  the  planter  front  is 
level,  an  accurate  check  cannot  be  obtained  if  the  heel  of 
the  furrow  opener  is  too  far  ahead  or  too  far  to  the  rear. 
It  is  impossible  to  get  an  even  check  if  the  planter  front 
is  not  carried  level. 

It  is  desirable  to  have  the  check-rower  arms  act  inde- 
pendently of  each  other,  as  it  relieves  the  wire  of  some 
work.  Two  types  of  check  heads  for  check  rowers  are 
used,  the  vertical  and  horizontal,  both  seem  to  be  equally 
satisfactory. 

179.  Draft  of  planters. — Draft  tests  gave  the  following 
results  for  the  mean  draft  of  two  styles  of  planters : 

Planter  with  open  wheels 212  pounds 

Planter  with  double  wheels 237  pounds 

180.  Calibration  of  planters. — It  is  an  undisputed  fact 
that  high  accuracy  cannot  be  secured  with  any  planter 


132  FARM    MACHINERY 

unless  the  corn  be  of  uniform  size  and  a  seed  plate  chosen 
to  suit  the  size  of  corn.  Types  of  corn  vary  much  in  size 
of  kernel,  and  one  plate  will  not  suit  all  types  and  varie- 
ties. Makers  usually  furnish  several  plates  with  their 
machines,  and  others  may  be  secured  if  necessary.  It 
stands  to  reason  that  no  planter  can  do  good  work  unless 
these  conditions  are  fulfilled.  The  planter  should  be  cali- 
brated and  tested  before  taken  to  the  field,  if  accuracy  of 
work  is  desired. 

181.  Corn  drills. — Although  most  planters  may  be  set 
to  drill  corn,  the  corn  drill  remains  a  distinct  tool  and  is 


FIG.  98 — THE   SINGLE-ROW  CORN   DRILL 

used  to  a  large  extent  in  certain  localities  of  the  country. 
Fig.  98  shows  a  single-row  drill  which  differs  but  little 
from  others  except  that  an  extra  knife  is  provided  in  front 
of  the  seed  tube.  Various  covering  devices  in  the  way  of 
shovels  and  disks  are  provided.  Drills  are  now  made  to 
take  two  rows,  and  even  four,  when  made  as  an  attach- 
ment to  a  grain  drill. 

182.  Listers. — The  use  of  the  lister  is  confined  to  the 
semi-arid  regions.  It  can  be  used  in  most  of  the  corn- 
growing  sections  where  the  rainfall  is  not  overabundant. 


SEEDING    MACHINERY  133 

It  IS  not  adapted  to  fields  that  are  extremely  level,  as 
water  will  collect  in  the  ditches  after  rains  and  drown  the 
corn  while  small.  Neither  can  it  be  used  in  hilly  locali- 
ties, as  the  corn  will  in  this  case  be  washed  out. 

The  lister  is  simply  a  double  plow  throwing  a  furrow 
both  ways.  The  seedbed  is  prepared  at  the  bottom  of  the 
furrow  with  a  subsoiler.  The  planting  may  be  done  later 
or  with  an  attached  drill,  which  plants  as  the  furrow  is 
opened  up.  Thus  plowing  and  planting  are  done  at  one 
operation.    Fig.  99  shows  one  of  the  latest  styles  of  walk- 


FIG.  99 — A   SINGLE-ROW   WALKING  LISTER  WITH  A  CORN  DRILL   ATTACHED. 
DISKS  ARE    USED  IN    PLACE  OF   THE  COVERING   SHOVEL 

ing  listers  with  sprocket-wheel-drilling  attachment. 
The  drill  attachment  may  be  used  independently  as  a 
drill.  Fig.  100  is  a  representative  three-wheel  riding 
lister.  Riding  listers  are  also  made  without  the  furrow 
wheel,  and  when  so  made  are  termed  sulky  listers.  Even 
the  lister  as  a  single-row  machine  has  not  been  rapid 
enough  for  the  Western  farmer,  and  several  makes  of  a 
two-row  lister  are  to  be  found  upon  the  market. 

183.  Loose-ground  listers. — Listing  of  corn  has  some 
disadvantages.  When  listing  is  practiced,  the  soil  is  not 
all  loosened,  and  when  successive  crops  are  grown  in  the 
same  way  an  effect  upon  the  yield  is  noticed.    To  gain  the 


134 


FARM    MACHINERY 


FIG,  lOI — A  TWO-ROW  LISTER 


SEEDING    MACHINERY 


135 


advantages  of  listing  after  plowing,  the  loose-ground 
lister  has  been  developed.  This  tool  is  a  two-row  ma- 
chine provided  with  disks  to  open  the  furrow,  instead  of 
right  and  left  moldboards,  Moldboards  will  not  scour  in 
loose  ground,  hence  the  use  of  disks.  When  the  loose- 
ground  lister  is  used,  the  ground  must  be  plowed  as  for 
the  planter,  thus  increasing  the  cost.  The  merits  of  the 
system  consist  in  having  the  corn  deeper  to  stand  the 
drought  better,  and  to  be  better  braced  to  stand  the  high 


FIG.  102— A  LOOSE-GROUND  LISTER.    DISK  FURROW  OPENERS  MAY  BE  USED 
ON    PLANTER  FOR  THE    SAME   PURPOSE 


winds  of  the  fall  and  not  become  "lodged."  The  fact 
that  the  corn  is  placed  in  a  furrow  makes  it  more  easily 
tended  because  there  is  a  large  amount  of  soil  to  be  moved 
toward  the  corn.  In  the  moving  of  this  dirt,  any  weeds 
are  easily  destroyed.  Fig.  102  shows  a  loose-ground 
lister.  Attachments  are  provided  which  may  be  placed 
upon  corn  planters  to  give  the  same  results. 


CHAPTER  VII 

HARVESTING  MACHINERY 

Agricultural  machinery  has  done  much  for  the  agri- 
culturist in  enabling  him  to  accomplish  more  in  a  given 
time,  and  to  do  it  with  less  effort,  than  before  its  intro- 
duction. Although  this  is  true  of  all  agricultural  ma- 
chinery, it  is  especially  true  of  harvesting  machinery. 
By  its  use  it  has  been  estimated  that  the  amount  of  labor 
required  to  produce  a  bushel  of  wheat  has  been  reduced 
from  3  hours  and  3  minutes  to  10  minutes. 

In  this  brief  discussion  harvesting 
machinery  will  be  considered  in  its 
broadest  sense  and  will  include  reap- 
ers, self-binders,  headers,  combined 
harvesters,  and  corn-harvesting  ma- 
chinery. 

184.  Development  of  hand  tools. — From 
the  oldest  records  that  remain  we  find  that 
the   people   of   that   early  time   were   pro- 
~AN  Iearly"  hand-'     vided  with  crude  hand  tools  for  the  reap- 
REAPiNG  TOOL  ing  of  grain.     These  primitive  sickles,  or 

reaping  hooks,  were  made  of  flint  and 
bronze,  and  are  found  among  the  remains  left  by  the  older 
nations.  Upon  the  tombs  at  Thebes,  in  Egypt,  are  found 
pictures  of  slaves  reaping.  These  pictures  were  made  1400 
or  1500  B.C.  The  form  of  the  Egyptian  sickles  varied  some- 
what, but  consisted  generally  of  a  curved  blade  with  a  straight 
handle. 

The  scythe  is  a  development  from  the  sickle  and  differs  from 
it  in  that  the  operator  can  use  both  hands  instead  of  one.  The 
Flemish  people  developed  a  tool  known  as  the  Hainault  scythe. 
It  has  a  wide  blade  2  feet  long,  having  a  handle  about  i  foot  in 


FIG.  103 — THE  SICKLE, 


HARVESTING   MACHINERY 


137 


length.  The  handle  is  bent  at  the  upper  end  and  is  provided  with 
a  leather  loop,  into  which  the  forefinger  is  inserted  to  aid  in 
keeping  the  tool  horizontal.  The  grain  was  gathered  by  a  hook 
in  the  left  hand.     This  tool  was  displaced  later  by  the  cradle. 

Development  in  scythes  has  consisted  in  making  the  blade 
lighter,  lengthening  the  handle,  and  adding  fingers  to  collect 
the  grain  and  to  carry  it  to  the 
end  of  the  stroke.  With  the 
addition  of  the  fingers,  the  tool 
was  given  a  new  name,  that  of 
the  cradle  scythe,  or  the  cradle. 
And  it  was  in  this  tool  that  the 
first  American  development 
took  place.  The  colonists,  when 
they  settled  in  this  country,  prob- 
ably brought  with  them  all  of 
the  European  types,  and  the 
American  cradle  was  simply  an 
improvement  over  the  old  coun- 
try tools.  The  time  of  the  intro-  fig.   104— the  American  cradle. 

J       ,.  r    ^,  Ji       U  u  THE     TOOL      USED     FOR     REAPING 

duction  of  the  cradle  has  been       ^^^^^    ^^^^^    ^^^    ^^^^^^    ^^ 
fixed    by    Professor    Brewer,    of       the   nineteenth   century 
Yale,   in   an   article   written   for 

the  Census  Report  of  1880,  as  somewhere  between  1776  and  the 
close  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

The  American  cradle  stands  at  the  head  of  all  hand  tools 
devised  for  the  reaping  of  grain.  When  it  was  once  perfected, 
its  use  spread  to  all  countries,  with  very  little  change  in  form. 
It  has  been  displaced,  it  is  true,  by  the  horse  reaper  almost 
entirely;  yet  there  are  places  in  this  country  and  abroad  where 
conditions  are  such  that  reaping  machines  are  impracticable  and 
where  the  cradle  has  still  a  work  to  do.  Again,  there  are  parts 
of  the  world  where  the  reaping  machine  has  never  been  intro- 
duced and  where  the  sickle  and  the  cradle  are  the  only  tools 
used  for  reaping.  It  seems  almost  incredible  that  any  people 
should  be  so  backward  as  to  be  using  at  the  present  time  these 
primitive  tools,  yet  it  is  to  be  remembered  that  even  the  most 
advanced  nations  used  them  for  centuries,  and  apparently  did 
not  think  of  anything  in  the  way  of  improvement. 

185.  The  first  reaper. — History  records  several  early  attempts 
toward   the   invention   of   a  machine   for   harvesting,   but  none 


138 


FARM    MACHINERY 


reached  a  stage  where  they  were  practical  until  the  eighteenth 
century.  Pliny  describes  a  machine  used  early  in  the  first  cen- 
tury which  stripped  the  heads  of  grain  from  the  stalk.  The 
machine  consisted  of  a  box  mounted  upon  two  wheels,  with 
teeth  to  engage  the  grain  at  the  front  end.  It  was  pushed  in 
front  of  an  animal  yoked  behind  it.  The  grain  was  raked  into 
the  box  by  the  attendant  as  the  machine  was  moved  along.  It 
is  further  stated  that  it  was  necessary  to  go  over  the  same  areas 
several  times. 

i86.  English  development. — There  were  several  attempts  at 
the  design  of  a  reaping  machine  before  1806,  but  none  were  suc- 
cessful. They  need  not  be  considered  in  this  discussion.  It  was 
in  1806  that  Gladstone  invented  a  machine  which  added  many 
new  ideas.  In  his  machine  the  horse  walked  to  the  side  of  the 
grain,  and  hence  the  introduction  of  the  side  cut.  It  had  a 
revolving  cutter  and  a  crude  form  of  guard.  It  did,  however, 
have  a  new  idea  in  an  inside  and- outside  divider.  The  grain  fell 
upon  a  platform  and  was  cleared  occasionally  with  a  hand  rake. 
As  a  whole,  this  machine  was  not  successful. 

In  1808  Mr.  Salmon,  of  Woburn,  invented  the  reciprocating 
cutter,  which  acted  over  a  row  of  stationary  blades.  This 
machine  combined  reciprocating  and  advancing  motion  for  the 
first  time.  The  delivery  of  the  grain 
was  unique  in  the  fact  that  a  vertical 
rake  actuated  by  a  crank  swept  the 
grain  from  the  platform  upon  which 
the  grain  fell  after  being  cut. 

In  1822,  Henry  Ogle,  a  school- 
master of  Remington,  in  connection 
with  a  mechanic  by  the  name  of 
Brown,  designed  and  built  a  machine 
which  is  worthy  of  mention.  The 
use  of  a  reciprocating  knife  had  been 
hinted  at  by  Salmon,  but  Ogle  made 
it  a  success.  This  machine  also  had 
.T,,xr^  the  first  reel  used,  and  was  provided 

FIG.      105 — OGLES      REAPING         .   ,  ,  '  ^      *^  . 

MACHINE  (ENGLAND,  1822)  With    a    dropper.      Accounts    are    not 
specific,    but    it    is    thought    that    the 
operator  for  the  first  time  rode  upon  a  seat. 

The  next  machine  was  the  most  successful  up  to  that  time 
(1826).     Patrick  Bell,  a  minister  of  Cannyville,  Forfarshire,  has 


HARVESTING   MACHINERY  I39 

the  honor  of  designing  it.  His  machine  had  oscillating  knives, 
each  of  which  were  about  15  inches  long  and  about  4  inches 
broad  at  the  back,  where  they  were  pivoted  and  worked  over  a 
similar  set  of  knives  underneath  like  so  many  pairs  of  shears.'  The 
rear  ends  of  the  movable  blades  were  attached  to  an  oscillating 
rod  connected  with  a  worm  flange  on  a  revolving  shaft.  It  pre- 
sented a  new  idea  in  having  a  canvas  moving  on  rollers  just 
behind  the  cutting  mechanism,  which  carried  the  grain  to  one 
side  and  deposited  it  in  a  continuous  swath.  Bell  also  provided 
his  machine  with  a  reel  and  inside  and  outside  dividers.     His 


FIG.    106 — bell's   reaping    MACHINE   (ENGLAND,    1828) 

machine  marks  the  point  when  the  development  of  the  reaping 
machine  was  practically  turned  over  to  Americans.  It  never 
was  very  practical  because  it  was  constructed  upon  wrong  prin- 
ciples, but  nevertheless  it  was  used  in  England  for  several  years 
until  replaced  with  machines  built  after  the  inventions  of  the 
Americans,  Hussey  and  McCormick. 

187.  American  development. — Beginning  with  the  year  1803, 
a  few  patents  were  recorded  before  Hussey's  first  patent,  which 
was  granted  December  31,  1833.  These  were  not  of  any  impor- 
tance, since  they  did  not  add  any  new  developments  and  were 
not  practical.  The  only  one  which  gave  much  encouragement 
was  the  invention  of  William  Manning,  of  New  Jersey,  patented 
in  1831.  Manning's  machine  had  a  grain  divider  and  a  sickle 
which  were  similar  to  those  used  later  in  the  Hussey  and  McCor- 
mick machines. 

It  was  in  1833  when  Obed  Hussey,  of  Baltimore,  Maryland, 
was  granted  his  patent  which  marks  the  beginning  of  a  period 


I40 


FARM    MACHINERY 


of  almost  marvelous  development.  Though  Cyrus  B.  McCor- 
mick  was  granted  his  first  patent  June  21,  1834,  it  is  claimed  that 
his  machine  was  actually  built  and  used  before  Hussey's,  whose 
machine  had  the  priority  in  the  date  of  patents. 

Hussey's  first  machine  was  indeed  a  very  crude  affair.  It  con- 
sisted of  a  frame  carrying  the  gearing,  with  a  wheel  at  each 
side  and  a  platform  at  the  rear.  The  cutter  was  attached  to  a 
pitman,  which  received  its  motion  from  a  crank  geared  to  the 


FIG.   107 — hussey's  reaping  MACHINE   (AMERICA,    1833) 


main  axle.  The  cutter  worked  in  a  series  of  fingers  or  guards, 
and  perhaps  approached  the  modern  device  much  closer  than  any 
reaper  had  up  to  this  time. 

McCormick's  machine  was  provided  with  a  reel  and  an  outside 
divider.    The  knife  had  an  ed^e  like  a  sickle  and  worked  through 


HARVESTING   MACHINERY 


141 


wires  which  acted  for  the  fingers  or  guards  of  Hussey's  machine. 
The  machine  was  of  about  4^2  feet  cut  and  was  drawn  by  one 
horse.  The  grain  fell  upon  a  platform  and  was  raked  to  one  side 
with  a  hand  rake  by  a  man  walking. 

Of  the  two  machines,  perhaps  Hussey's  had  the  more  valuable 
improvement  and  it  was  nearer  the  device  which  proved  to  be 
successful  later.  Friends  of  both  these  men  claim  for  them  the 
honors  for  the  first  successful  reaper.  Hussey  did  not  have  the 
energy  and  the  perseverance,  and  hence  lost  in  the  struggle  for 


FIG.    108 — m'cORMICK  reaping   MACHINE    (aaiERICA,   1834) 


supremacy  which  followed.  At  first  the  honors  were  evenly 
divided.  In  1878  McCormick  was  elected  a  corresponding  mem- 
ber of  the  French  Academy  of  Sciences  upon  the  ground  of  his 
"having  done  more  for  the  cause  of  agriculture  than  any  other 
living  man." 

Palmer  and  Williams,  July  i,  1851,  obtained  a  patent  for  a 
sweep  rake  which  swept  the  platform  at  regular  intervals,  leav- 
ing the  grain  in  bunches  to  be  bound. 

The  next  invention  of  importance   was   that   of   C.   W.   and 


142  FARM    MACHINERY 

W.  W.  Marsh,  of  Illinois.  A  patent  for  this  was  granted 
August  17,  1858,  and  gave  to  the  world  the  Marsh  harvester.  This 
carried  two  or  more  attendants,  who  received  the  grain  from  an 
elevator  and  bound  it  into  sheaves.  The  two  Marsh  brothers, 
in  connection  with  J.  T.  Hollister,  organized  a  company  which 
built  24  machines  in  1864  and  increased  the  output  each  year 
until  in  1870  over  1,000  machines  were  built.  This  company  was 
finally  merged  into  the  Deering  Harvester  Company. 

George  H.  Spaulding  invented  and  was  granted  a  patent  on 
the  packer  for  the  modern  harvester,  May  31,  1870.  This  inven- 
tion was  soon  made  use  of  by  all  manufacturers.  John  P. 
Appleby  developed  the  packer  and  added  a  self-sizing  device. 
He  has  also  the  honor  of  inventing  the  first  successful  twine 
knotter.  The  Appleby  knotter,  in  a  more  or  less  modified  form, 
is  used  on   almost  every  machine  to-day. 

Jonathan  Haines,  of  Illinois,  patented,  March  27,  1849,  a  ma- 
chine for  heading  the  grain  and  elevating  it  into  wagons  driven 
at  the  side  of  the  machine. 

In  certain  parts  of  the  West,  notably  California,  where  con- 
ditions are  such  that  grain  will  cure  while  standing  in  the  field, 
a  combined  machine  has  been  built  which  cuts,  threshes,  sep- 
arates, and  sacks  the  grain  as  it  is  drawn  along  either  by  horses 
or  by  a  traction  engine.  The  first  combined  machine  was  built 
in  1875  by  D.  C.  Matteson.  Benjamin  Holt  has  done  much  to 
perfect  the  machine.  The  development  of  the  grain  harvester 
may  be  summarized  as  follows : 

Gladstone  was  the  first  to  have  a  side-cut  machine. 

Ogle  added  the  reel  and  receiving  platform. 

Salmon  gave  the  cutting  mechanism,  which  was  improved  by  Bell, 
Hussey,  and  McCormick. 

To  Rev.  Patrick  Bell  must  be  given  credit  for  the  reel  and  side- 
delivery  carrying  device. 

Obed  Hussey  gave  that  which  is  so  important,  the  cutting  ap- 
paratus. 

For  the  automatic  rake  credit  must  be  given  to  Palmer  and 
Williams. 

For  a  practical  hand-binding  machine  the  Marsh  brothers 
should  have  the  honor. 

To  Spaulding  and  Appleby  the  world  is  indebted  for  the  sizing, 
packing,   and   tying   mechanisms. 

Jonathan  Haines  introduced  the  header. 

Many  other  handy  and  important  details  have  been  added  by  a 
multitude  of  inventors,  but  all  cannot  be  mentioned 


J 


HARVESTING   MACHINERY  I43 

188.  The  self-rake  reaper. — The  modern  self-rake  re- 
sembles the  early  machine  very  much,  and  improvement 
has  taken  place  only  along  the  line  of  detail.  The  machine 
has  a  platform  in  the  form  of  a  quarter  circle,  to  which 
the  grain  is  reeled  by  the  rakes,  as  well  as  removed  to 
one  side  far  enough  to  permit  the  machine  to  pass  on  the 
next  round.    The  cutting  mechanism  is  like  that  of  the 


FIG.   109 — A   MODERN  SELF-RAKE  REAPER 

harvester.  The  machine  is  used  to  only  a  limited  extent 
owing  to  the  fact  that  the  grain  must  be  bound  by  hand. 
The  reaper  is  preferred  by  some  in  the  harvesting  of 
certain  crops,  like  buckwheat  and  peas.  It  is  usually 
made  in  a  5-foot  cut,  and  can  be  drawn  by  two  horses, 
cutting  six  to  eight  acres  a  day. 

MODERN  HARVESTER  OR  BINDER 

189.  The  modern  self-binding  harvester  consists  essen- 
tially of  (i)  a  drive  wheel  in  contact  with  the  ground; 


144 


FARM    MACHINERY 


(2)  gearing  to  distribute  the  power  from  the  driver  to 
the  various  parts ;  (3)  the  cutting  mechanism  of  the  ser- 
rated reciprocating  knife,   driven   by  a  pitman  from  a 


FIG.    no — A   MODERN   SELF-BINDING  HARVESTER  OR  BINDER 

crank,  and  guards  or  fingers  to  hold  the  grain  while  being 
cut;  (4)  a  reel  to  gather  the  grain  and  cause  it  to  fall  in 
form  on  the  platform ;  (5)  an  elevating  system  of  endless 


FIG.    Ill — ANOTHER   MODERN   HARVESTER 


webs  or  canvases  to  carry  the  loose  grain  to  the  binder; 
and  (6)  a  binder  to  form  the  Ipose  grain  into  bundles  and 
tie  with  twine. 


HARVESTING   MACHINERY  I45 

Some  of  the  more  important  features  and  individual 
parts  will  now  be  discussed  in  regard  to  construction  and 
adjustment.  Parts  are  numbered  to  correspond  with 
numbers  in  Figs,  no  and  iii. 

190.  Canvases  (i)  should  be  provided  with  tighteners  by 
which  they  may  be  loosened  when  not  in  use.  Tighteners 
also  make  it  more  convenient  to  put  canvases  on  the 
machine.  The  elevator  rollers  should  be  driven  from  the 
top,  thus  placing  the  tight  side  next  to  the  grain.  The 
creeping  of  canvases  is  due  to  one  of  two  things,  either 
the  canvases  are  not  tight  enough  or  the  elevator  frame 
is  not  square.  If  the  elevator  is  not  square,  the  slats  will 
be  torn  from  the  canvases.  This  trouble  may  be  over- 
come by  measuring  across  the  rollers  diagonally  or 
placing  a  carpenter's  square  in  the  corner  between  guide 
and  roller,  and  adjusting.  The  method  of  adjustment 
varies  with  different  makes,  but  the  lower  elevator  is 
usually  adjusted  with  a  brace  rod  to  the  frame,  and  the 
upper  elevator  with  a  slot  in  the  casting  attaching  the 
guide  to  the  pipe  frame. 

191.  Elevator  chains  (2). — Two  kinds  of  chains  are  found 
in  use,  the  steel  chain  and  the  malleable.  The  steel  chain 
is  claimed  to  be  the  most  durable,  but  has  the  disadvan- 
tage of  causing  the  sprocket  teeth  to  cut  away  faster. 
This  wear  is  often  the  greatest  upon  the  driving  sprocket, 
as  it  has  the  most  work  to  do.  It  is  thought  that  the  steel 
chain  is  the  more  desirable  chain  to  have. 

192.  The  chain  tightener  (3). — The  chain  tightener  may 
have  a  spring  or  slot  adjustment.  The  spring  adjustment 
is  very  handy  and  an  even  tension  is  maintained  on  the 
chain.  The  elevator  chain  should  not  be  run  with  more 
tension  than  needed,  as  it  produces  wear  and  adds  to  the 
draft. 

193.  Twine  box  (4). — The  location  of  the  twine  box  is 


146  FARM    MACHINERY 

the  principal  thing  to  be  considered  in  order  to  secure 
the  greatest  convenience  in  watching  the  twine,  and  also 
in  adding  new  balls. 

194.  Reel  (5). — Convenience  and  strength  are  the  prin- 
cipal things  to  be  considered  in  a  selection  of  a  reel.  It 
should  have  the  greatest  range  of  adjustment  and  permit 
this  adjustment  to  be  made  easily.  The  making  of  a  good 
bundle  and  the  handling  of  lodged  grain  depend  largely 
upon  the  manipulation  of  the  reel.  This  may  mean  that 
the  reel  must  be  adjusted  several  times  during  a  single 
round  of  a  field. 

The  reel  slats  or  fans  should  be  adjusted  to  clear  the 
dividers  equally  at  each  end,  and  also  to  travel  parallel 
to  the  cutter  bar. 

195.  Grain  dividers  (6). — It  is  an  advantage  to  have  the 
outside  divider  adjustable  not  only  for  different-sized 
grain,  but  also  for  making  the  machine  narrow  when 
mounted  upon  the  transport  trucks. 

196.  Grain  wheel  (7). — Theweakpointof  thegrainwheel 
is  the  bearing,  and  it  is  often  necessary  to  replace  the 
axle  and  boxings  several  times  during  the  life  of  a 
machine.  In  order  to  prolong  the  life  of  the  grain-wheel 
axle,  it  is  made,  by  some  manufacturers,  with  a  roller 
bearing. 

197.  Elevators  (8). — The  elevator  should  extend  well  to 
the  front  of  the  platform  in  order  that  the  grain  may  not 
be  hindered  in  the  least  in  starting  upon  its  path  up  the 
elevator.  The  guides  should  be  hollowed  out  slightly  on 
the  side  next  the  grain,  giving  the  canvases  a  chance  to 
expand  and  not  drag  heavily  upon  the  guides.  It  is  also 
an  advantage  to  have  the  lower  end  of  the  upper  guide 
flexible  in  order  that  it  may  pass  over  extra  large  bunches 
of  grain.  The  open  elevator,  permitting  the  handling  of 
long  grain,  as  rye,  is  now  almost  universally  adopted. 


HARVESTING   MACHINERY  1 47 

The  sprockets  by  which  the  elevator  rollers  are  driven 
should  always  be  in  line.  Adjustment  may  be  made  by 
sighting  across  their  face. 

198.  Deck  (9). — The  steeper  the  deck,  the  better;  but 
makers  have  made  it  rather  flat  in  order  to  reduce  the 
height  of  the  machine.  The  deck  should  be  well  covered 
by  the  packers  to  prevent  clogging. 

199.  Main  frame  (10). — Main  frames  are  shipped  either 
separate  or  fastened  to  the  platform.  In  the  latter  case, 
if  there  is  a  joint,  it  is  riveted  and  very  seldom  gives  any 
trouble  in  becoming  loose.  In  the  first  case,  bolts  must 
be  used ;  but  they  do  not  give  any  trouble  if  care  is  used 
in  assembling  the  binder. 

200.  Platform  (ii). — The  platform  is  now  universally 
provided  with  an  iron  bottom,  which  is  more  durable  and 
smoother  for  the  platform  canvas  to  pass  over.  It  is 
made  of  painted  iron,  and  it  might  be  improved  if  it 
should  be  made  of  galvanized  iron,  as  it  often  rusts  out 
before  the  machine  is  worn  out. 

201.  Main  wheel  (12). — The  main  wheel  isoneof  the  parts 
which  usually  outwear  the  rest  of  the  machine.  The 
tendency  is  now  to  make  the  main  wheel  too  small.  The 
larger  wheel  is  more  desirable,  as  it  carries  the  load  better 
and  is  able  to  give  a  greater  driving  power.  Main  wheels 
have  now  attained  a  standard  size  of  34  and  36  inches 
in  the  side-cut  machine.  The  steel  wheel  is  now  used 
almost  universally,  the  wooden  wheel  and  the  wooden- 
rimmed  wheel  having  gone  out  of  use  entirely.  Three 
types  of  spokes  are  used :  the  hairpin,  the  spoke  cast  in 
the  hub,  and  the  spoke  fastened  to  a  flange  of  the  hub 
with  nuts.  The  main  wheel  shaft  or  axle  should  be  pro- 
vided with  roller  bearings,  and  also  a  convenient  and  sure 
method  of  oiling.  The  bolt  in  the  lower  part  of  the  quad- 
rant should  always  be  in  place.     When  the  bolt  is  out 


148 


FARM    MACHINERY 


it  is  possible  to  run  the  machine  up  too  far  and  let  the 
main  axle  start  into  the  quadrants  crosswise. 

202.  Main  drive  chain  (13). — Two  common  types  of  drive 
chains  are  to  be  found  upon  the  market :  the  all-malleable 
link  and  the  malleable  link  with  the  steel  pin.  The  lat- 
ter is  perhaps  the  more  desirable,  but  not  so  handy  for 
replacing  broken  links.  The  main  chain  should  not  pass 
too  close  to  the  tire  of  the  main  wheel,  or  it  will  clog  with 
mud  badly. 

203.  Cutter  bar  (14). — Twokindsof  cutterbars  are  found, 
the  Z  bar  and  the  angle  bar.  One  seems  to  be  as  good 
as  the  other,  but  some  little  difference  is  to  be  found  be- 
tween the  angle  given  to  the  guards,  enabling  some 
machines  to  cut  closer  to  the  ground  than  others. 

204.  Main  drive  shaft  (15) . — The  main  drive  shaft  should 
be  given  good  clearance  from  the  main  wheel  to  prevent 
clogging.  This  shaft  is  now  generally  provided  with 
roller  bearings,  and  often  self-aligning  bearings,  which 
prevent  any  possible  chance  for  the  shaft  to  bind  and 
thus  increase  the  friction. 

205.  Butter  or  adjuster  (16). — The  canvas  butter  has 
always  been  very  satisfactory,  except  it  was  short- 
lived. Often  it  was  the  first  part  of  the  binder  to  be  re- 
placed. This  led  several  makers  to  build  an  adjuster 
which  had  oscillating  parts  or  board.  The  single  board 
seems  to  be  just  as  satisfactory,  as  the  upper  half  of  the 
two-board  adjuster  does  very  little  good.  The  all-steel 
belt  as  now  commonly  used  upon  push  binders  is  no 
doubt  the  most  satisfactory  butter  made.  It  is  durable 
and  efficient,  but  not  generally  adopted,  probably  on  ac- 
count of  its  cost. 

206.  Packers  (17). — The  packers  should  practically  cover 
the  deck,  reaching  within  an  inch  or  so  of  the  deck  roller. 
This  will  prevent  any  tendency  to  clog  in  heavy  grain. 


HARVESTING    MACHINERY  I49 

The  third  packer  is  considered  an  advantage,  but  is  not 
generally  adopted. 

207.  Main  gear  (i8). — Considerable  difference  is  to  be 
noticed  in  different  binders  in  the  size  of  the  gearing  used. 
It  is  true  that  many  makers  are  not  liberal  enough  with 
material  in  the  construction  of  the  main  gear  wheels. 

208.  Bundle  carriers  (19). — Two  general  types  of  bundle 
carriers  are  to  be  found  in  use.  In  one  the  fingers  swing 
back  when  depositing  the  load,  while  in  the  other  the 
carrier  is  simply  tipped  down  at  the  rear  and  the  load  of 
bundles  allowed  to  slide  off.  The  swinging  bundle  carrier 
scatters  the  bundles  quite  badly.  While  the  other  does 
not  have  this  fault,  it  does  not  work  so  well  in  hilly 
countries,  because  in  going  downhill  the  bundles  refuse 
to  slide  from  the  carrier,  and  in  going  uphill  they  will  not 
stay  on  the  carrier. 

209.  Tension  (20) . — The  roller  tension,  introduced  a  few 
years  ago,  is  without  doubt  the  best  device  of  the  kind 


FIG.    112 — ^A    ROLLER  TENSION    FOR   THE   TWINE.      A    VERY    SATISFACTORY 

DEVICE 

yet  invented.  The  twine  will  not  be  caught  at  knots, 
kinks  will  not  be  formed,  and  the  tension  is  always  even 
independent  of  the  size  of  the  twine. 


150  FARM    MACHINERY 

The  tension  should  not  be  used  to  produce  tight  bun- 
dles. It  should  be  used  only  to  keep  the  twine  from  play- 
ing out  too  fast. 

2 10.  Binder  attachment  (21 ) . — The  mechanism  which  ties 
the  bundle  is  usually  spoken  of  as  the  binder  attachment. 
The  first  binder  attachment  depended  upon  a  train  of 
gear  wheels  to  transmit  the  power  to  the  needle  and  the 
knotter  mechanism.  At  least  one  binder  still  retains  this 
feature,  while  others  have  adopted  the  shaft  and  bevel 
gears,  a  chain  and  sprockets,  or  a  lever  in  some  form  or 
other.  Each  binder,  however,  seems  to  be  satisfactory 
in  this  particular.  The  levers  have  perhaps  a  disadvan- 
tage in  that  a  very  slight  wear  produces  a  marked  effect 
upon  the  adjustment  of  the  parts.  The  clutch  is  one  of 
the  important  features  of  a  binder  attachment  and  per- 
haps demands  of  the  expert  more  attention  than  any 
other  one  part  of  the  binder.  If  the  attachment  stops 
before  a  bundle  is  made,  even  though  it  may  be  for  but  a 
short  time,  the  action  would  indicate  something  to  be 
wrong  with  the  clutch.  The  binder  attachment  is  driven 
directly  from  the  crank  shaft  in  some  makes  and  in  others 
by  the  elevator  chain.  The  former  method  is  to  be  pre- 
ferred, as  it  relieves  the  elevator  chain  of  part  of  its  work. 

211.  Knotter  (22). — ^I'he  term  knotter  is  applied  to  the 
knotter  hook  or  the  part  on  which  the  knot  is  produced, 
and  also  to  the  entire  mechanism  making  the  knot,  in- 
cluding frame,  knotter  hook  or  bill,  knotter  pinion,  knife, 
disk,  gear,  etc.     (See  Fig.  T13.) 

The  knotter  has  been  changed  but  little  since  it  was 
first  introduced  by  Appleby.  The  worm  gears  have  to 
some  extent  been  replaced  by  cam  motion,  which  is  more 
adjustable.  Simplicity  of  parts  may  or  may  not  be  an 
advantage.  An  adjustable  device  to  drive  the  twine  disk, 
for  instance,  is  often  a  great  advantage.     A  stripper  to 


HARVESTING    MACHINERY 


151 


carry  the  twine  from  the  knotter  hook  has  proved  more 
reliable  than  to  depend  upon  the  twine  being  pulled  from 
the  knotter  hook  by  the  bundle. 

212.  Adjustment. — It  seems  impossible  to  take  up  the 
adjustment  of  the  binder  in  the  light  of  experting  in  this 
treatise.     However,  there  are  a  few  misadjustments  of- 


FIG.   113 — A  TWINE  DISK.      A  KNOTTER  COMPLETE — A  KNOTTER   HOOK 

common  occurrence,  and  often  resulting  in  loss  of  dollars 
to  the  user  of  the  machine,  which  may  be  taken  up  here. 

1.  A  loose  main  drive  chain  permits  the  chain  to  ride 
the  teeth  of  the  sprocket  and  slip  down  the  teeth,  giving 
the  machine  a  jerky  motion,  as  if  some  part  was  catching 
and  stopping  the  machine.  A  dry  or  muddy  chain  aids 
in  giving  this  effect. 

2.  If  the  slats  are  torn  from  canvases,  the  elevators 
are  not  square  or  the  rollers  are  not  parallel  to  each  other. 
The  method  of  putting  elevators  in  square  has  been  ex- 
plained. 

3.  If  the  main  gear  cuts  badly  and  wears  rapidly, 
either  the  gears  do  not  mesh  properly  or  the  elevator 
chain  is  too  tight. 

4.  The  knotter  hook  will  not  work  properly  unless 
smooth  and  free  from  rust.  It  can  be  polished  with  fine 
emery  paper. 

5.  The  binder  attachment  will  not  do  its  work  prop- 


152  FARM    MACHINERY 

erly  unless  timed.  By  this  is  meant  the  adjustment  of 
each  part  so  it  will  do  its  share  at  the  proper  time.  Marks 
are  placed  on  the  teeth  of  gear  wheels  and  sprockets  to 
enable  them  to  be  properly  timed.  Some  binders  are 
timed  in  as  many  as  five  places. 

6.  The  knotter  pinion  must  fit  to  the  tyer  wheel,  and 
there  must  not  be  any  lost  motion.  The  tyer  wheel,  or 
cam  wheel,  may  be  set  up  against  the  knotter  pinion,  but 
if  worn  the  knotter  pinion  must  be  replaced.  If  the 
knotter  hook  does  not  turn  far  enough  to  close  the  finger 
on  the  twine,  a  knot  will  not  be  tied. 

7.  If  the  cord  holder  does  not  hold  twine  tight 
enough,  the  twine  will  be  pulled  out  before  the  knot  is 
made.  It  should  require  a  force  of  about  40  pounds  to 
pull  the  twine  from  the  disk.  Adjustment  is  made  with 
the  cord-holder  spring. 

8.  If  the  disk  does  not  move  far  enough,  the  knotter 
hook  will  grasp  only  one  cord ;  hence  a  loose  band  with  a 
knot  on  one  end. 

9.  If  the  needle  does  not  carry  the  twine  far  enough, 
the  hook  will  grasp  only  one  cord,  and  hence  a  loose  band 
with  a  loose  knot.  The  travel  of  the  needle  is  adjusted 
by  the  length  of  the  pitman.  The  needle  may  become 
bent,  as  it  is  made  of  malleable  iron,  but  it  will  permit  of 
being  hammered  back  into  form. 

10.  If  the  knife  is  dull,  it  may  pull  the  twine  from  the 
hook  before  the  knot  is  made. 

11.  The  compress  spring  relieves  the  strain  on  the 
machine  when  the  needle  compresses  the  bundle.  It 
should  never  be  screwed  down  until  dead  in  an  effort  to 
make  larger  bundles. 

12.  The  bundle-sizer  spring — not  the  tension  or 
compress  spring — should  be  used  to  make  tight 
bundles. 


HARVESTING  MACHINERY  153 

13.  Good  oil  should  be  used  and  all  holes  kept  open. 
In  setting  up  new  machines,  kerosene  should  be  used  to 
loosen  up  the  paint. 

14.  Any  difficulty  must  be  traced  to  its  source,  and 
adjustment  should  not  be  made  haphazard  in  hope  of 
finding  the  trouble. 

213.  The  transport  truck. — When  it  is  necessary  to 
move  the  binder  from  place  to  place,  it  is  mounted  upon 
transport  trucks,  which  facilitate  its  transportation 
through  gates  and  over  bridges.  The  trucks  are  set  under 
the  machine  by  raising  the  machine  to  its  maximum 
height  and  then  lowering  it  to  the  trucks.  The  tongue  is 
then  removed  and  attached  at  the  end  of  the  platform 
beside  or  through  the  grain  wheel.  Some  transports  are 
more  handy  to  attach  than  others. 

214.  The  tongue  truck. — Owing  to  the  weight  on  the 
tongue  and  the  fact  that  the  team  cannot  be  well  placed 
directly  in  front  of  the  machine  to  prevent  side  draft,  the 
use  of  tongue  trucks  has  become  popular,  especially  on 
the  wide-cut  machine.  Their  use  is  to  be  commended, 
for  not  only  is  the  work  made  easier  for  the  horses,  but 
it  permits  four  horses  to  be  hitched  abreast. 

215.  Width  of  cut. — Binders  vary  in  the  width  of  cut 
or  swath  from  5  to  8  feet.  The  6-foot  machine  is  the 
common  size  to  be  used  with  three  horses,  the  harvesting 
of  10  to  15  acres  being  an  average  day's  work.  The 
7-  and  8-foot  machines  are  used  in  localities  growing 
lighter  crops  and  require  four  horses. 

216.  Draft  of  binders. — The  following  results  were  ob- 
tained during  the  season  of  1906  at  Iowa  State  College 
from  testing  a  McCormick  and  a  Deering  binder  cutting 
oats.    The  ground  in  both  cases  was  dry  and  firm. 

McCormick  6-foot :  Average  of  three  tests. ..  .316  pounds 
Deering       6-foot:        "  '*        **      ...  .312 pounds 


154 


FARM    MACHINERY 


217.  The  header  is  a  machine  arranged  to  cut  the  stand- 
ing grain  very  high,  leaving  practically  all  of  the  straw 
in  the  field.  The  cutting  and  reeling  mechanisms  of  the 
header  are  much  like  those  of  the  harvester,  but  the 
machine  dilTers  decidedl}^  in  the  manner  of  hitching  the 
teams  for  propelling  it.  It  is  pushed  ahead  of  the  horses 
and  guided  from  the  rear  by  a  rudder  wheel.  The  headed 
grain  is  carried  by  canvases  up  an  elevator  and  deposited 
in  a  wagon  with  a  large  box  drawn  along  beside  the 
machine.    The  header  usually  cuts  a  wide  swath  from  10 


FIG.   114 — THE  MODERN  HEADER 

to  20  feet,  and  requires  4  to  6  horses  to  operate  it.  With 
it,  20  to  40  acres  may  be  harvested  in  a  day.  An  attach- 
ment is  sometimes  placed  upon  the  header  to  bind  the  cut 
grain  into  bundles,  in  which  case  the  grain  is  cut  lower. 
This  attachment  must  necessarily  be  very  highly  geared, 
but  does  very  satisfactory  work.  A  machine  with  a  binder 
attachment  is  called  a  header  binder. 

218.  The  combined  harvester  and  thresher  is  a  thresh- 
ing machine  with  a  harvesting  mechanism  at  the  side 
which  conveys  the  headed  grain  from  a  wide  swath  di- 
rectly to  the  thresher  cylinder. .  The  cutting  and  ele- 
vating machinery  is  much  like  that  of  the  header,  and  the 


HARVESTING  MACHINERY  I55 

threshing  machine  is  of  the  usual  type.  It  is  to  be  men- 
tioned that  this  machine  can  be  used  only  where  the 
grain  will  cure  while  standing  in  the  field,  and  where  the 
climate  provides  a  dry  season  for  the  harvest.  These 
machines  have  an  enormous  capacity,  harvesting  and 
threshing  up  to  loo  acres  or  to  2,500  bushels  of  grain  a 
day.    The  swath  varies  from  18  to  40  feet.    The  power 


j^^^;jP»i*^''<i(fa|^-->triT''^^^^ 

^1,  ■. 

m 

FIG.    115 — THE  COMBINED  HARVESTER  AND  THRESHER  OPERATED  BY  STEAM 

POWER 

may  be  furnished  either  by  horses  or  a  traction  engine. 
From  24  to  36  horses  or  mules  are  required  to  furnish  the 
power.  All  the  horses  or  mules  are  under  the  control  of 
a  pair  of  leaders  driven  by  lines.  Following  the  leaders 
there  are  usually  two  sets  of  four,  and  the  remainder  of 
the  animals  are  arranged  in  sets  of  six  or  eight  In  this 
way  one  man  is  enabled  to  drive  the  entire  team.  At  least 
three  other  men  are  required  to  operate  the  machine,  one 
to  have  general  supervision,  one  to  tilt  the  cutter  bar,  and 
one  to  sew  and  dump  the  sacks  when  they  accumulate  in 
lots  of  six  or  eight.  The  largest  machines  are  operated 
by  steam  power. 

CORN  HARVESTING  MACHINERY 
219.  Development. — The .  corn   binder   has   become    in    recent 
years   a   very   important   tool   because   farmers   have   begun    to 
realize  the  true  worth  of  the  cornstalk  as  feed  for  live  stock. 


156  FARM    MACHINERY 

It  has  been  stated  by  good  authorities  that  40  per  cent  of  the 
feeding  value  of  the  corn  lies  in  the  leaves  and  stalks.  To 
let  all  this  go  to  waste  is,  to  say  the  least,  poor  economy,  but  to 
handle  the  corn  crop  entirely  by  hand  is  so  laborious  that  it  was 
not  until  modern  labor-saving  tools  were  developed  that  the 
saving  of  the  entire  crop  could  be  practiced.  It  is  true  that  the 
ear  and  the  stalk  have  been  used  for  stock  food  from  the  earliest 
time,  but  the  practice  was  always  limited  in  the  corn  belt  as 
long  as  hand  methods  prevailed. 

The  earliest  tool  used  for  cutting  corn  was  the  common  hoe, 
and  certainly  must  have  been  a  very  awkward  tool.  Later  the 
sickle  was  made  use  of  in  topping  the  corn,  a  method  by  which 
the  stalk  was  cut  off  above  the  ear  after  fertilization  had  taken 
place.  Methods  used  in  an  early  time  for  the  building  of  shocks 
or  stocks  of  corn  would  seem  very  crude  to-day.  Often  a  center 
pole  was  sunk  into  the  ground  and  horizontal  arms  inserted  in 
holes  in  it.  Against  this  the  corn  was  piled  until  a  shock  of 
sufficient  size  was  formed,  then  the  arms  were  withdrawn,  finally 
the  center  pole.  The  whole  was  compressed  and  tied  with  a 
cornstalk  band.  Another  method  used  to-day  is  to  tie  the  tops 
of  four  hills,  forming  a  saddle  against  which  the  corn  is  piled. 

The  corn  knife  was  soon  developed,  and  was  first  perhaps  an 
old  scythe  blade  provided  with  a  handle.  The  manufactured 
corn  knife  can  now  be  bought  in  a  variety  of  shapes  and  with  a 
choice  of  handles.  One  style  of  knife  may  be  fastened  to  the 
boot,  but  does  not  seem  to  be  very  successful. 


I 


FIG.  116 — A  SLED  CORN  HARVESTER 


HARVESTING  MACHINERY  1 57 

D.  M.  Osborn  &  Co.,  as  early  as  1890,  presented  a  corn 
harvester  to  the  public.  It  cut  the  standing  corn  and  elevated 
it  into  a  wagon  drawn  beside  the  machine.  The  McCormick 
corn  binder  was  soon  to  follow.  It  is  a  striking  fact  that  the 
first  McCormick  machine  was  a  machine  pushed  before  the 
horses.     In  1893  the  Deering  corn  harvester  was  given  a  field 


FIG.    117 — THE  VERTICAL  CORN    HARVESTER 

trial,  which  was  claimed  to  be  very  successful.     To-day  there  are 
several  corn  harvesters  upon  the  market. 

220.  Sled  harvesters. — Many  attempts  were  made  follov^- 
ing-  the  introduction  of  the  grain  binder  to  build  a  corn 
harvester,  but  all  resulted  in  failures.     The  sled  harvester 


FIG.  118 — THE  HORIZONTAL  CORN  HARVESTER 


158  FARM    MACHINERY 

was  the  first  successful  machine.  It  consists  of  a  sled  plat- 
form or  a  platform  mounted  upon  small  wheels,  which  car- 
ries knives  at  an  angle  to  cut  the  corn  as  it  is  grasped  by  the 
operator,  who  rides  on  the  platform.  The  machine  is  made 
for  one  horse,  with  the  knives  sloping  back  from  the  center, 
or  for  two  horses,  with  the  knives  sloping  from  the  outside 
to  the  center.  This  machine  is  cheap  and  has  a  much  larger 
capacity  than  hand  cutting.  Heavy  corn  cannot  well  be 
handled,  however,  with  a  sled  harvester. 

221.  Types  of  harvesters. — Corn  harvesters  may  be 
divided  into  three  classes,  depending  upon  the  position  of 
the  bundle  while  being  bound.  This  may  be  either  in  a 
vertical,  inclined,  or  a  horizontal  position  (Figs.  117  and 
118). 

The  vertical  harvester  seems  to  be  the  most  popu- 
lar, although  the  other  types  do  very  satisfactory 
work.  Owing  to  the  difference  in  the  height  of  corn  in 
various  parts  of  the  country,  some  makers  provide  two 
styles  of  harvesters,  one  for  short  corn  and  the  other 
for  tall. 

The  binder  of  the  corn  harvester  resembles  very  closely 
the  binder  of  the  grain  harvester.  At  first  they  were 
identical,  but  later  it  was  found  best  to  make  the  binder 
for  the  corn  harvester  a  little  heavier.  The  corn  harvester 
should  be  provided  with  roller  bearings  and  other  con- 
veniences of  adjustment  to  be  found  upon  the  grain 
binder. 

222.  The  stubble-cutter  attachment  consists  of  a  knife 
attached  to  the  corn  harvester.  It  cuts  the  stubble  close 
to  the  ground  and  makes  further  operations  in  the  field 
more  convenient.  The  attachment  does  not  add  much  to 
the  draft  of  the  machine,  and  is  surely  a  very  useful 
device. 

223.  The  corn  shocker  was  one  of  the  first  machines 


HARVESTING  MACHINERY 


159 


FIG. 


119 — A    CORN    SHOCKER.      THE   CORN    SHOCK   IS    COLLECTED   ON    THE 
PLATFORM  AND  LIFTED  TO  THE  GROUND  AFTER  BEING  TIED 


l6o  FARM    MACHINERY 

devised  by  the  early  inventors  for  the  handling  of  the 
corn  crop,  but  it  was  not  presented  to  the  public  until 
after  the  introduction  of  the  corn  harvester  or  binder.  It 
resembles  the  corn  harvester  in  the  construction  of  the 
dividers  and  the  cutting  mechanism.  Fig.  119  illustrates 
the  modern  corn  shocker.  To  the  rear  of  the  dividers  a 
rotating  table  is  placed  with  a  center  post.  The  corn  is 
guided  by  fingers  and  angle  irons  to  the  center  of  the 
table.  As  additional  stalks  are  cut  they  are  added  to  the 
outside  until  a  shock  of  proper  size  is  formed.  The 
machine  is  stopped  and  the  shock  tied  with  twine.  By 
the  aid  of  a  windlass  and  crane  the  shock  is  lifted  bodily 
from  the  table  and  dropped  to  the  ground.  When  the 
tension  on  the  lifting  rope  is  slacked  the  arms  which  en- 
abled the  shock  to  be  lifted  are  released  by  pawls,  so  they 
no  longer  remain  in  a  horizontal  position,  but  turn  down 
as  the  center  post  is  drawn  from  the  shock. 

The  capacity  of  the  corn  shocker  is  only  about  one-half 
that  of  the  corn  harvester.  It  has  the  disadvantage  that 
only  small  shocks  can  be  made,  which  do  not  stand  well 
and  blow  down  easily.  Another  objection  to  its  use  is 
that  the  corn  is  more  difficult  to  handle  than  when  bound, 
into  bundles.  There  is,  however,  a  saving  of  twine,  and 
the  work  involved  is  not  so  laborious  as  that  of  shocking 
corn  bundles  by  hand. 

224.  Loading  devices. — ^The  past  few  years  have  wit- 
nessed the  introduction  of  several  devices  for  loading 
corn  fodder,  hay,  manure,  etc.  The  machine  usually  con- 
sists of  a  crane  or  derrick  with  a  horse  lift  by  which  a 
fork  large  enough  to  handle  an  entire  shock  is  brought 
into  action. 

225.  Corn  pickers. — There  have  been  many  attempts  to 
make  a  corn  picker  which  would  pick  the  ears  from  the 
Standing  stalk.    For  many  years  these  attempts  resulted 


HARVESTING  MACHINERY 


l6l 


in  failures.  However,  the  present  scarcity  of  farm  labor 
and  the  liberal  prices  paid  for  the  picking  of  corn  have 
again  encouraged  many  inventors  to  spend  time  and 
money  upon  a  machine  of  this  kind.  During  the  recent 
seasons  several  makes  of  corn  pickers  have  been  tried, 
with  more  or  less  success.  Without  any  doubt,  it  is  only 
a  question  of  time  until  a  practical  machine  may  be  had. 

Two  general  types  of  corn  pickers  are  to  be  found :  the 
corn  picker  proper  and  the  corn  picker-husker.  The  for- 
mer does  not  attempt  to  husk  the  ears,  but  simply  to 
remove  the  ears  from  the  stalk.     However,  in  this  opera- 


FIG.    120 — THE   CORN    PICKER-HUSKER 


tion  a  large  portion  of  the  husks  are  removed  from  the 
ear.  The  remaining  husks  do  not  greatly  interfere  with 
the  feeding  or  shelling  of  the  corn. 

The  other  type  is  provided  with  husking  rolls,  which 
remove  the  husks  before  the  ears  are  elevated  into  a 
wagon  drawn  beside  the  machine. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
HAYING  MACHINERY 

The  introduction  of  modern  haying  machinery  has 
wrought  almost  the  same  change  in  the  harvesting  of  the 
hay  crop  as  harvesting  machinery  has  in  the  harvesting 
of  the  small-grain  crop.  The  labor  involved  under  present 
conditions  in  the  cutting,  curing,  and  storing  of  a  ton 
of  hay  is  but  a  small  fraction  of  v^hat  it  w^as  under  the 
old  system  of  hand  methods. 

The  hay  crop  ranks  third  in  value  among  our  crops. 
The  addition  of  several  nev^  plants  has  greatly  increased 
the  value  of  the  hay  crop.  This  is  especially  true  of 
alfalfa  and  brome  grass,  v^^hich  have  proved  to  be  very 
valuable  hay  crops.  The  practice  of  curing  grass  for 
forage  was  in  vogue  before  written  history  was  begun. 
The  first  tools  were  as  crude  as  possible.  To-day  we  have 
a  very  complete  line  of  hay  tools  for  all  conditions  of 
work. 

THE  MOWER 

226.  The  mower. — The  development  of  the  mower  has  been 
traced  by  M.  F.  Miller  in  the  "Evolution  of  Harvesting  Machin- 
ery,"* a  bulletin  published  by  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture,  and  we  are  pleased  to  quote  as  follows : 

"In  the  early  development  of  the  mower  it  was  so  intimately 
connected  with  the  reaper  that  a  little  space  should  here  be 
devoted  to  a  short  review  of  its  history.  Hussey's  first  machine 
was  really  a  mower,  and  it  was  upon  this  principle  that  the 
mower  was  afterward  built.     Many  of  the  early  machines  con- 

*  Bulletin  No.  103,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations. 


HAYING    MACHINERY  I63 

tained  combinations  of  the  mower  and  the  reaper,  and  were  used 
with  a  little  adjustment  to  cut  either  grain  or  grass.  A  name 
that  stands  out  prominently  in  the  development  of  mowers  is 
that  of  William  F.   Ketchum,  who  has  sometimes  been  spoken 


FIG.    121 — KETCHUM's   mower    (AMERICA,    1847) 

of  as  the  father  of  the  mower  trade,  since  he  was  the  first  to  put 
mowers  on  the  market  as  a  type  of  machine  distinct  from  the 
reaper.  He  took  out  several  patents,  but  the  one  granted  July  10, 
1847,  was  of  especial  importance.  The  main  features  of  this 
patent  were  the  unobstructed  space  left  between  the  driving 
wheel  and  the  finger  bar,  with  its  support,  and  the  remarkable 
simplicity  of  the  machine.  The  cutter  was  an  endless  chain  of 
knives,  which  never  became  successful,  but  which  caused  some 
excitement  at  the  time.  Ketchum  afterwarH,  adopted  the  Hussey 
type  of  cutter  and  produced  a  very  successful  mower  of  the 
rigid-bar  type.  It  was  this  machine  that  led  the  way  in  mower 
development  and  became  the  first  really  practical  machine.   .    .    . 

"The  first  invention  showing  the  feature  of  a  flexible  bar  was 
that  of  Hazard  Knowles,  the  machinist  of  the  Patent  Office  at 
Washington.  It  showed  many  valuable  features  of  a  reaping 
machine  also,  but  no  patent  was  taken  out.  The  patent  granted 
to  Cyrenus  Wheeler,  December  5,  1854,  marks  the  division  be- 
tween the  two  types  of  machines.  Wheeler  was  a  practical  man, 
and,  like   McCormick  in   the   development  of  the  reaper,  sue- 


164  FARM   MACHINERY 

ceeded  in  combining  so  many  important  features  in  his  machines 
as  to  give  him  a  place  as  one  of  the  foremost  pioneers  in  the 
development  of  the  mower.  The  machine  of  1854  was  not  a  suc- 
cess as  constructed,  but  the  features  of  two  drive  wheels  and 
a  cutter  bar  jointed  to  the  main  wheels  were  lasting.  .   .    . 

"On  July  17,  1856,  a  patent  was  granted  to  Cornelius  Aultman 
and  Lewis  Miller  containing  principles  that  still  exist  in  all 
successful  mowers.  The  first  patent  claimed  'connecting  the 
cutter  bar  to  the  machine  by  the  double-rule  joint  or  the  double- 
jointed  coupling  pin.'  It  was  reissued  to  cover  an  arrangement 
for  holding  up  the  bar  while  moving,  and  the  combination  of 
ratchet-wheel  pawl  and  spring.  On  May  4,  1858,  Lewis  Miller 
took  out  a  patent  on  a  mower  that  combined  the  features  of 
the  former  machine  with  some  new  principles.  It  contained 
all  the  elements  of  the  successful  modern  two-wheeled  machine, 
and  mower  development  since  that  time  has  been  a  perfecting 
of  this  type.  This  machine  was  built  under  the  name  of  the 
'Buckeye,'  and,  with  a  substitution  of  metal  for  certain  wooden 
parts,  and  certain  other  improvements,  it  is  in  use  to-day. 
E.  Ball,  associated  with  this  firm,  also  made  valuable  improve- 
ments in  mowers.  In  1856  a  patent  was  granted  to  A.  Kirby 
covering  improvements  made  by  him  a  few  years  previous,  and 
his  machines  soon  became  popular.  Others  took  up  the  manu- 
facture of  mowers  at  this  early  date,  so  that  by  i860  the  mower 
had  become  a  thoroughly  practical  machine,  and  was  being 
improved  by  various  firms  throughout  the  country.  This  im- 
provement has  gone  on  with  the  many  makes  of  machines  now 
in  existence,  and  to-day  we  have  various  forms,  from  the  single 
one-horse  machine  to  the*  large  two-horse  type,  with  its  long 
cutter  bar,  running  with  as  light  a  draft  as  the  former  clumsy 
machine  diid  with  a  cut  but  half  as  wide.  As  a  result  of  this 
development  the  amount  of  hay  produced  in  the  United  States 
has  increased  enormously,  and  to-day  it  stands  as  one  of  the 
most  important  crops." 

MODERN  MOWERS 

227.  Types. — Modern  mowing  machines  are  of  two 
types,  the  side-cut  mower  and  the  direct-cut  mower.  The 
cutter  bar  of  the  former  is  placed  at  one  side  of  the  drive 


HAYING  MACHINERY  165 

wheels  or  truck,  while  in  the  latter  it  is  placed  directly  in 
front  of  the  drivers.  The  mower  consists  essentially  in 
(i)  the  cutting  mechanism,  comprising  a  reciprocating 
knife  or  sickle  operated  through  guards  or  fingers  and 
driven  by  a  pitman  from  a  crank,  (2)  driver  wheels  in 
contact  with  the  ground,  (3)  gearing  to  give  the  crank 
proper  speed,  and  (4)  dividers  to  divide  the  cut  grass 
from  the  standing. 

228.  The  one-horse  mower  is  usually  a  smaller  size  of 
the  two-horse  machine,  fitted  with  shafts  or  thills  instead 
of  ?  tongue.  It  is  made  in  sizes  of  35^-  or  4-foot  cut,  and 
is  used  principally  in  the  mowing  of  lawns,  parks,  etc. 

229.  The  two-horse  mower  is  commonly  made  in  43^- 
and  5-foot  cuts,  although  6-,  7-,  and  8-foot  machines  are 


FIG.   122 — A   MODERN  TWO-HORSE  MOWER 

manufactured.  The  latter  are  spoken  of  as  wide-cut 
mowers  and  are  usually  of  heavier  construction  than  the 
standard  machines  (Fig.  122).  From  8  to  15  acres  is  an 
average  day's  work  with  the  5-  or  6-foot  machines. 

230.  Mower  frame. — Mower  frames  are  usually  made 
in  one  piece  of  cast  iron.    The  openings  for  the  axle  and 


l66  FARM    MACHINERY 

the  shafting  are  cored  out,  but  where  the  bearings  are  to 
be  located  enough  extra  material  is  provided  for  boring 
out  to  size.  Roller  bearings  are  usually  provided  for  the 
main  axle. 

231.  The  crank  shaft  is  usually  provided  with  a  plain 
bearing  at  the  crank  and  a  roller  bearing  at  the  pinion 
end.  A  ball  bearing  is  provided  at  the  end  of  the  small 
bevel  pinion  to  take  the  end  thrust.  It  is  not  possible  to 
use  a  ball  or  roller  bearing  at  the  crank  end,  due  to  the 
vibratory  action  of  the  shaft  tending  to  wear  the  bearing 
out  of  round.  This  bearing  is  either  provided  with  an 
adjustment  or  an  interchangeable  brass  bushing  to  take 
up  the  wear.  The  crank  should  be  well  protected  from 
the  front  and  under  sides.  The  crank  and  pitman  motion 
seems  to  be  the  most  satisfactory  device  to  transmit  a 
reciprocating  motion  to  the  knife.  A  wobble  gear  was 
tried  a  few  years  ago,  but  has  been  given  up.  A  mower 
is  manufactured  with  a  pitman  taking  the  motion  from 
the  face  of  the  crank  wheel  instead  of  the  side.  It  is  not 
known  how  successful  this  machme  is. 

232.  Main  gears. — The  driving  gears  should  be  liberal 
in  size  and  always  closed  in  such  a  way  as  to  be  protected 
from  dust,  and  also  to  facilitate  oiling.  It  might  be  an 
advantage  in  mowers  as  in  some  other  machines  to  have 
the  gears  run  in  oil. 

233.  Wheels  should  be  high  and  have  a  good  width  of 
tire.  The  common  height  is  32  inches,  and  3^  and  4 
inches  the  common  width  of  tire.  It  is  some  advantage  to 
have  several  pawls  to  engage  the  ratchet  teeth  in  the 
wheels,  because  this  feature,  in  connection  with  a  clutch 
with  several  teeth  for  throwing  the  machine  in  and  out  of 
gear,  will  make  the  machine  more  positive  in  its  action. 
That  is,  the  sickle  will  start  to  move  very  shortly  after 
the  main  wheels  are  set  in  motion.     Mowers  driven  by 


HAYING  MACHINERY  167 

large  gear  wheels  in  the  drive  wheels  are  more  positive 
in  their  action  and  hence  are  preferred  in  foreign  coun- 
tries where  very  heavy  swaths  are  to  be  cut. 

234.  The  pitman  in  the  mower  corresponds  to  the  con- 
necting rod  in  an  engine.  Its  function  is  to  change  cir- 
cular motion  into  rectilinear  motion,  the  reverse  of  the 
connecting  rod.  The  crank  pin  and  sickle  should  always 
be  at  right  angles  with  each  other,  but  this  feature  is  not 
so  essential  when  the  pitman  is  connected  to  the  sickle 
with  a  ball-and-socket  joint. 

Pitmans  are  made  of  wood  and  steel.  Wood  rods  are 
the  most  reliable,  because  steel,  due  to  the  excessive 
vibration,  becomes  crystallized  and  weak.  The  steel  pit- 
man, however,  may  be  so  constructed  as  to  be  adjustable, 
and  enables  the  operator  to  adjust  the  length  until  the 
knife  acts  equally  over  the  guards  at  each  end  of  the 
stroke.  The  pitman  should  be  protected  from  being 
struck  by  any  obstruction  from  the  front. 

235.  The  cutter  bar  is  the  cutting  mechanism,  exclusive 
of  the  sickle.  It  has  a  hinge  coupling  at  one  end  and  a 
divider  and  grass  board  at  the  other.  The  bar  proper  to 
which  the  guards  are  bolted  should  be  stiff  enough  to 
prevent  sagging.  It  is  the  practice  in  some  machines  to 
make  the  bar  bowed  down  slightly  and  to  straighten  it  by 
carrying  the  greater  part  of  the  weight  at  the  hinge  end, 
the  weight  of  the  bar  itself  causing  it  to  straighten. 

Some  arrangement  should  be  provided  to  take  up  the 
wear  of  the  pins  of  the  hinge  joints  in  order  that  the 
cutter  bar  may  be  kept  in  line  with  the  pitman. 

236.  Wearing  plates. — Best  mowers  are  now  equipped 
with  wearing  plates  where  the  sickle  comes  in  contact 
with  the  cutter  bar.  They  may  be  renewed  at  a  small 
cost.  The  clips  to  hold  the  sickle  in  place  are  now  made 
of  malleable  iron  and  are  bolted  in  place  to  facilitate 


l68  FARM    MACHINERY 

their  replacement  when  worn.  If  slightly  worn,  they  may 
be  hammered  down  until  the  proper  amount  of  play  be- 
tween the  clip  and  the  sickle  is  obtained.  Under  normal 
conditions,  this  is  about  i/ioo  of  an  inch.  In  no  case 
should  it  be  so  open  as  to  permit  grass  to  wedge  under 
the  clips,  but  at  all  times  should  hold  the  knife  well  upon 
the  ledger  plates  so  as  to  give  the  proper  shearing  action. 

237.  Mower  guards  are  fitted  with  two  kinds  of  ledger 
plates,  one  with  a  smooth  edge  and  the  other  with  a 
serrated  edge.  The  serrated  plate  holds  fine  grasses  to 
better  advantage  than  the  smooth  ledger  plate,  and  In  this 
way  aids  with  the  cutting. 

238.  Shoes. — The  cutter  bar  should  be  provided  with 
an  adjustable  shoe  at  each  end,  by  means  of  which  the 
height  of  cut  may  be  varied  to  some  extent.  A  weed  at- 
tachment is  often  provided  which  will  enable  the  cutter 
bar  to  be  raised  10  inches  or  more.  A  shoe  is  better  than 
a  small  wheel  at  the  outer  end  of  the  bar  because  the 
wheel  will  drop  into  small  holes,  while  the  runner  will 
bridge  them. 

239.  The  grass  board. — The  purpose  of  the  grass  board 
and  the  grass  stick  is  to  rake  the  grass  away  from  the 
edge  of  the  swath  to  give  a  clean  place  for  the  inside  shoe 
the  next  round.  The  grass  board  should  be  provided  with 
a  spring  to  make  it  more  flexible  and  less  apt  to  be  broken 
in  backing  and  turning. 

240.  Foot  lifts. — Nearly  all  modern  mowers  are  now 
provided  with  a  foot  lift,  which  enables  the  operator  to 
lift  the  cutter  bar  over  obstructions,  and  also  makes 
easier  work  for  the  team  by  lifting  the  bar  while  turning. 
A  spring  is  necessary  to  aid  in  the  lifting. 

Certain  mowers,  known  as  vertical  lift  mowers,  permit 
the  cutter  bar  to  be  lifted  to  a  vertical  position  by  a  lever, 
to  pass  obstructions,  and  at  the  same  time  the  mower  is 


HAYING  MACHINERY  169 

automatically   thrown   out  of  gear.     When   the  bar  is 
lowered  the  mower  is  again  put  in  gear. 

241.  Draft  connections. — The  hitch  on  mowers  is 
usually  made  low  and  below  the  tongue.  A  direct  con- 
nection is  sometimes  made  to  the  drag  bar  with  a  draft 
rod.  This  is  styled  a  draw  cut,  and  may  have  some  ad- 
vantage in  applying  the  power  more  directly  to  the  point 
where  it  is  used. 

242.  Troubles  with  mowers. — If  a  mower  fails  to  cut 
the  grass  and  leave  a  clean  stubble,  there  may  be  several 
things  wrong:  (i)  the  knife  or  sickle  may  be  dull;  (2)  it 
may  not  fit  well  over  the  ledger  plates,  losing  the  advan- 
tages of  a  shear  cut;  (3)  the  knife  may  not  register,  or,  in 
other  words,  it  travels  too  far  in  one  direction  and  not 
far  enough  in  the  other.  The  first  of  these  troubles  may 
be  remedied  by  grinding,  the  second  by  adjusting  the 
clips  on  top  of  the  knife.  There  should  be  but  a  very 
slight  clearance  under  these  clips,  and  the  exact  amount 
has  been  given  as  i/ioo  inch.  To  make  the  knife  register 
in  some  makes,  the  pitman  must  be  adjusted,  while  in 
others  the  yoke  must  be  adjusted.  If  the  mower  leaves  a 
narrow  strip  of  grass  uncut,  it  indicates  that  one  of  the 
guards  has  been  bent  down,  a  common  thing  to  happen 
to  mowers  used  in  stony  fields.  Mower  guards  are  now  uni- 
versally made  of  malleable  iron  and  may  be  hammered  into 
line  with  a  few  sharp  blows  with  a  hammer.  The  guards 
may  be  lined  up  by  raising  the  cutter  bar  and  sighting 
over  the  ledger  plates  and  along  the  points  of  the  guards. 

243.  A  windrowing  attachment  consists  in  a  set  of 
curved  fingers  attached  to  the  rear  of  the  cutter  bar, 
which  rolls  the  swath  into  a  windrow.  It  is  useful  in  cut- 
ting clover,  peas,  and  buckwheat.  The  attachment  may 
be  used  as  a  buncher  with  the  addition  of  fingers  to  hold 
the  swath  until  tripped. 


I/O 


FARM    MACHINERY 


FIG.   123 — A   WINDROWING  ATTACHMENT  FOR  A  MOWER.     IT  MAY  ALSO  BE 
USED  AS   A  BUNCHER 

244.  Knife  grinder. — The  knife  grinder  is  a  handy  tool 
which  may  be  attached  to  a  mower  wheel  or  to  a  bench. 


FIG.    124 — A   SICKLE  OR  MOWER   KNIFE  GRINDER 


HAYING  MACHINERY 


171 


It  is  used  for  sharpening  the  mower  knives.  Usually  it 
has  a  double-beveled  emery  wheel  which  will  grind  two 
sections  of  the  knife  at  the  same  time.  The  emery  wheel 
is  given  a  high  rotative  speed  by  means  of  gearing  or 
sprocket  wheels  and  chain   (Fig.   124). 


RAKES 

245.  Development. — The  introduction  of  the  mower  created 
a  demand  for  something  better  and  with  a  greater  capacity  than 
the  ordinary  hand  rake.  As  long  as  hand  methods  prevailed  in 
the  cutting  of  the  grasses  there  was  little  need  for  anything 
better  than  the  hand  rake.  The  first  horse  rake  was  revolving. 
It  did  very  satisfactory  work  when  carefully  handled.  But  later 
in  the  steel  tooth  rake  there  was  found  a  much  better  tool.  To 
Walter  A.  Wood  Company,  of  Hoosick  Falls,  New  York,  is 
given  the  credit  for  bringing  out  the  first  spring-tooth  rake. 
Differing  from  the  modern  tool,  it  was  made  almost  entirely 
of  wood  except  the  teeth.  The  early  rakes  were  dumped  entirely 
by  hand,  but  later  an  internal  ratchet  was  provided  on  the 
wheels,  which  engaged  a  latch  operated  by  the  foot,  and  which 
carried  the  rake  teeth  up  and  over,  thus  dumping  the  load. 
The  early  rakes  were   almost  universally  provided  with  thills. 


FIG.   125 — A  STEEL  SELF-DUMP  RAKE  FOR  TWO  HORSES.     THE  TONGUE  MAY 

BE  SEPARATED  INTO  THILLS   FOR  ONE   HORSE.      THE  TEETH 

HAVE  ONE  COIL  AND  CHISEL  POINTS 


172  FARM    MACHINERY 

Finally  arrangements  were  made  whereby  the  thills  ''ou^d  be 
brought  together  and  a  tongue  made  for  the  use  of  a  team 
instead  of  one  horse. 

246.  The  steel  dump  rake  or  sulky  rake. — Although  the 
first  rakes  were  made  of  wood,  there  are  now  upon  the 
market  rakes  made  almost  entirely  of  steel.  The  rake 
head  to  which  the  teeth  are  fastened  is  usually  made  of  a 
heavy  channel  bar  with  a  minimum  of  holes  punched 
through  it  so  as  not  to  impair  its  strength. 

In  the  selection  of  a  rake  considerable  variance  is 
offered  in  the  choice  of  teeth,  which  may  be  constructed 
of  7/16-inch  or  1/2-inch  round  steel,  may  have  one  or 
two  coils  at  the  top,  be  spaced  3^/2  inches  to  5  inches 
apart,  and  have  either  pencil  or  flat  points.  The 
choice  depends  somewhat  upon  the  kind  of  hay  to  be 
raked. 

The  rake  is  always  provided  with  a  set  of  cleaner  teeth 
to  prevent  the  hay  from  being  carried  up  with  the  teeth 
when  the  rake  is  dumped.  The  outside  teeth  are  some- 
times provided  with  a  projection  which  prevents  the  hay 
from  being  rolled  into  a  rope  and  scattered  out  at  the 
ends  when  the  hay  is  very  light.  Sometimes  an  extra 
pair  of  short  teeth  is  provided  to  prevent  this  rolling. 

247.  Self-dump  rakes  are  always  provided  with  a  lever 
for  hand  dumping.  Rakes  are  made  from  8  to  12  feet  in 
width.  In  the  purchase  of  a  rake  the  important  things 
to  look  for  are  ease  in  operation,  strength  of  rake  head 
and  wheels.  Often  the  wheels  are  the  first  to  give  way. 
Some  wheels  are  very  bad  about  causing  the  hay  to  wrap 
about  the  hub.  The  wheel  boxes  should  be  interchange- 
able so  they  may  be  replaced  when  worn. 

248.  Side-delivery  rakes. — The  side-delivery  rake  was 
brought  about  by  the  introduction  of  the  hay  loader,  the 
loader  creating  a  demand  for  a  machine  which  would 


HAYING  MACHINERY  I73 

place  the  hay  in  a  light  windrow.  The  first  of  these  ma- 
chines was  manufactured  by  Chambers,  Bering,  Quinlan 
Company,  of  Decatur,  Illinois. 

249.  One-way  rakes. — Practically  all  of  these  machines 
consist  of  a  cylinder  mounted  obliquely  to  the  front.  They 
carry  flexible  steel-wire  fingers,  which  revolve  under  and 
to  the  front.    These  fingers  roll  the  hay  ahead,  and  also 


FIG.   126 — ONE-\¥AY  SIDE-DELIVERY  RAKE 

to  one  side.  Some  variance  is  to  be  found  in  the  methods 
employed  to  drive  the  cylinder.  Both  gears  and  chain- 
and-sprocket  drives  are  used. 

250.  Endless  apron,  reversible  rakes. — There  are  other 
machines  upon  the  market  with  a  carrier  or  endless 
apron  upon  which  the  hay  is  elevated  by  a  revolving  cyl- 
inder and  carried  to  either  side.  This  machine  does  very 
satisfactory  work  and  will  place  in  one  windrow  as  many 
as  six  swaths  of  the  mower.  By  manipulation  of  the 
clutch  driving  the  apron,  this  machine  may  be  made  to 
deposit  the  hay  in  bunches  to  be  placed  in  hay  cocks  or 
loaded  to  a  wagon  by  a  fork. 

The  side-delivery  rake  takes  the  place  of  the  hay  tedder 


174 


FARM    MACHINERY 


to  a  large  extent.  The  method  of  curing  hay,  especially 
clover,  by  raking  into  light  windrows  shortly  after  being 
mown,  has  proved  very  successful.  A  first-class  quality 
of  hay  is  obtained  and  in  an  equal  length  of  time.  It  is 
claimed  that  if  the  leaves  are  prevented  from  drying  up, 
they  will  aid  very  greatly  in  carrying  off  the  moisture 
from  the  stems.  Green  clover  contains  about  85  per  cent 
of  water.  When  cured,  only  about  25  per  cent  is  left. 
The  leaves  draw  this  moisture  from  the  stems,  and  if  free 
circulation  of  air  is  obtained  the  hay  will  dry  quicker 
than  if  this  outlet  of  the  moisture  for  the  water  was  cut 


•       FIG.    127 — ^THE  ENDLESS  APRON   OR  REVERSIBLE  SIDE-DELIVERY  RAKE 

ofif  by  letting  the  leaves  dry  up.  Many  of  the  one-way 
side-delivery  rakes  may  be  converted  into  tedders  by  re- 
versing the  forks  and  the  direction  of  their  movement. 
The  standard  width  for  side-delivery  rakes  is  eight  feet. 
They  are  drawn  by  two  horses. 


HAY    TEDDERS 


251.  Hay  tedders. — Where  a  heavy  swath  of  hay  is  ob- 
tained, some  difficulty  is  experienced  in  getting  the  hay 
thoroughly  cured  without  stirring.  To  do  this  stirring 
the  hay  tedder  has  been  devised.    Grasses,  when  cut  with 


HAYING  MACHINERY 


I7S 


a  mower,  are  deposited  very  smoothly,  and  the  swath 
is  packed  somewhat  to  the  stubble  by  the  passing  of 
the  team  and  mower  over  it.     The  office  of  the  tedder 


FIG.  128 — AN  EIGHT-FORK  HAY  TEDDER 


is  to  reverse  the  surface  and  to  leave  the  swath  in  such 
a  loose  condition  that  the  air  may  have  free  access  and 

thus  aid  in  the  curing. 

The  hay  tedder  consists 
of  a  number  of  arms  with 
wire  tines  or  fingers  at  the 
lower  ends.  These  are  fast- 
ened to  a  revolving  crank 
near  the  middle  and  to  a 
lever  at  the  other  end.  The 
motion  of  the  cranks  causes 
the  tines  to  kick  backward 
under  the  machine,  thus 
engaging  the  mown  hay, 
FIG.  129— TYPES  OF  TEDDER  FORKS  tossiug  it  up  and  Icaving  it 
WITH   COIL  AND  FLAT  RELIEF     in  a  vcry  loosc  condition. 

SPRINGS.    D  SHOWS  THE  SPRING       rr-i  j  U*  J 

OF  C  SPRUNG  ^  ^^  modern  machine,  made 


176  FARM    MACHINERY 

almost  entirely  of  steel,  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  128.  The 
size  of  tedders  is  rated  by  the  number  of  forks.  Tedders 
constructed  of  wood  are  still  upon  the  market.  The  fork 
shaft  may  be  driven  by  a  chain  or  by  gearing. 

HAY  LOADER 

252.  Development. — The  hay  loader  has  been  upon  the 
market  for  some  time,  but  only  during  recent  years  has 
there  been  any  great  demand  for  the  tool.  The  Keystone 
Manufacturing  Company,  of  Sterling,  Illinois,  began  ex- 


FIG.    130 — A  FORK    HAY   LOADER 


perimenting  with  the  hay  loader  as  early  as  1875.  The 
machine  is  designed  to  be  attached  to  the  rear  of  the 
wagon,  to  gather  the  hay  and  elevate  it  to  a  rack  on  the 
wagon. 


HAYING  MACHINERY  177 

253.  Fork  loader. — In  all  of  the  early  machines  the  hay 
was  placed  upon  the  elevating  apron  by  tines  or  forks 
attached  to  oscillating  bars  extending  up  over  the  load. 
The  hay  was  pushed  along  this  apron  by  these  oscillating 
bars  with  the  tines  on  the  under  side.  This  form  of  loader 
worked  very  satisfactorily,  but  had  one  disadvantage  in 
working  in  clover  and  alfalfa.  The  oscillating  bars  were 
unsatisfactory,  as  they  shook  the  leaves  out  of  the  hay. 
This  led  to  the  introduction  of  an  endless  apron,  which 
works  very  satisfactorily  in  this  respect.  The  loader 
equipped  with  oscillating  forks  is  of  much  more  simple 
construction  than  the  other  type.  It  also  has  an  advan- 
tage in  being  able  to  draw  the  swath  of  hay  together  at 
the  top,  and  force  it  upon  the  wagon.  Loaders  of  this 
kind  are  made  without  gears  by  increasing  the  throw  of 
the  forks.  These  machines  have  not  as  yet  demonstrated 
their  advantages. 

254.  Endless  apron  loaders. — The  hay  is  elevated  in 
this  type  of  loader  on  an  endless  apron  or  carrier  after 
it  has  been  gathered  by  a  gathering  cylinder.  The  main 
advantage  of  this  type  of  loader  is  that  it  does  not  handle 
the  hay  as  roughly  as  the  fork  loaders.  This  is  an  im- 
portant feature  in  handlfng  alfalfa  and  clover,  as  there 
is  a  tendency  to  shake  out  many  of  the  leaves,  a  valuable 
part  of  the  hay.  Due  provision  must  be  made,  however, 
to  prevent  the  hay  from  being  carried  back  by  the  carrier 
returning  on  the  under  side.  The  apron  or  carrier  usually 
passes  over  a  cylinder  at  the  under  side,  which  has  te^th 
to  aid  in  starting  the  hay  up  the  carrier. 

Provision  must  be  made  to  enable  the  gathering  cylin- 
der to  pass  over  obstructions  and  uneven  ground.  For 
this  reason  the  gathering  cylinder  is  mounted  upon  a 
separate  frame  and  the  whole  held  to  the  ground  by  suit- 
able springs.    The  loader  has  a  great  range  of  capacity. 


178 


FARM    MACHINERY 


All  modern  machines  will  load  hay  from  the  swath  or  the 
windrow,  and  the  carrier  will  elevate  large  bunches  of 
hay  without  any  difficult}^ 


FIG.    131 — AN   ENDLESS    APRON   OR   CARRIER   HAY   LOADER 


MACHINES  FOR  FIELD   STACKING 


255.  Sweep  rakes. — Where  a  large  amount  of  hay  is  to 
be  stacked  in  a  short  time,  the  sweep  rake  and  the  hay 
stacker  will  do  the  work  more  quickly  than  is  possible 
by  any  other  means.  The  sweep  rake  has  straight  wooden 
teeth  to  take  the  hay  either  from  the  swath  or  windrow, 
and  is  either  drawn  between  the  two  horses  or  pushed 
ahead.     When   a  load  is   secured  the  teeth  are  raised, 


HAYING  MACHINERY  179 

the  load  hauled  and  placed  upon  the  teeth  of  the  stacker 
and  the  rake  backed  away. 

There  are  three  general  types  of  sweep  rakes:  (i)  the 
wheelless,  with   the   horses   spread   to  each  end  of  the 


FIG.   I32~A  TWO-WHEEL   SWEEP  RAKE.      THE  TEETH  ARE  RAISED  BY   THE 
DRIVER  SHIFTING   HIS   SEAT 

rake ;  (2)  the  wheeled  rake,  with  the  horses  spread  in 
the  same  manner;  and  (3)  the  three-wheel  rake,  with  the 
horses  directly  behind  the  rake  and  working  on  a  tongue. 


FIG.    133 — A  THREE-WHEEL  SWEEP  RAKE.      THE  DRIVER  IS   AIDED  IN  LIFT- 
ING THE  LOADED  TEETH  BY  THE  PULL  OF  THE   HORSES 

The  latter  are  the  more  expensive.  They  offer  advan- 
tages in  driving  the  team,  but  are  a  little  difficult  to  guide 
(Figs.  132  and  133). 

256.  Hay  stackers  are  made  in  two  general  types:  the 
overshot  and  the  swinging  stacker.    In  the  overshot  the 


i8o 


FARM    MACHINERY 


FIG.    134 — A   PLAIN  OVERSHOT   HAY    STACKER 


FIG. 


135 — THE    SWING    HAY    STACKER.      NOTE    THE    BRAKE   AT   THE    REAR 
END  FOR  HOLDING  THE  ROPE 


HAYING  MACHINERY  l8l 

teeth  carrying  the  load  are  drawn  up  and  over  and  the 
load  is  thrown  directly  back  upon  the  stack,  the  work 
being  done  with  a  horse  or  a  team  of  horses  by  means  of 
ropes  and  suitable  pulleys  (Fig.  134). 

The  swinging  stacker  permits  the  load  to  be  locked  in 
place  after  it  has  been  raised  from  the  ground  to  any 
height  and  swung  to  one  side  over  the  stack.  When  over 
the  stack,  the  load  may  be  dumped  and  the  fork  swung 
back  and  lowered  into  place.  The  latter  stackers  are 
very  handy,  as  they  may  be  used  to  load  on  to  a  wagon. 
They  have  not  as  yet  been  built  strong  enough  to  stand 
hard  service. 

257.  Forks. — A  cable  outfit  may  be  arranged  with  a 
carrier  and  fork  for  field  stacking,  the  cable  being 
stretched  between  poles  and  supported  with  guy  ropes. 
This  outfit  works  the  same  as  the  barn  tools  to  be  de- 
scribed later.  Very  high  stacks  may  be  built  by  this 
method. 

A  single  inclined  pole  may  be  used  in  stacking  by 
raising  the  fork  load  to  the  top  and  swinging  over  the 
stack.  This  is  usually  a  home-made  outfit,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  fork  and  the  pulleys. 

BARN  TOOLS 

258.  Development. — The  introduction  of  the  field  hay- 
ing tools  created  a  demand  for  machinery  for  the  unload- 
ing of  the  load  of  hay  at  the  barn,  and  this  led  to  the 
development  of  a  line  of  carriers  and  forks,  the  first  of 
which  was  a  harpoon  fork,  a  patent  for  which  was  issued 
to  E.  L.  Walfer,  September,  1864.  In  1873  a  Mr.  Nellis 
patented  a  locking  device,  which  has  given  to  this  fork 
the  name  of  Nellis  fork. 

J.  E.  Porter  began  the  manufacture  of  a  line  of  carriers 


FARM    MACHINERY 


-wmrmcK, 


FIG.    136 — TYPES  OF  STEEL  AND  WOOD  HAY  CARRIER  TRACKS 


HAYING  MACHINERY 


183 


and  hay  tools  at  Ottawa,  Illinois,  in  1868.  This  firm  is 
still  doing  business.  P.  A.  Meyers  was  another  pioneer 
in  the  hay  tool  business,  and  in  1866  paten-ted  a  double 
track  made  of  two  T-bars.  In  1887,  J.  E.  Porter  placed 
upon  the  market  a  solid  steel  rail. 

259.  Tracks. — A  large  variety  of  tracks  is  to  be  found 
upon  the  market  to-day — the  square  wooden  track,  the 
two-piece  wooden  track,  the  single-piece  inverted  T  steel 
track,  the  double  steel  track  made  of  two  angle  bars,  and 
various  forms  of  single-  and  double-flange  steel  tracks. 
Wire  cables  are  used  in  outdoor  work. 

Various  forms  of  track  switches  and  folding  tracks  are 
to  be  found  upon  the  market.  By  means  of  a  switch  it  is 
possible  to  unload  hay  at  one  point  and  send  it  out  in 
four  dififerent  directions.  In  circular  barns  it  is  possible 
to  arrange  pulleys  in  such  a  way  that  the  carrier  will  be 
carried  around  a  circular  track. 

260.  Forks  are  built  in  a  variety  of  shapes  and  are 

known  as  single-harpoon  or 
shear  fork,  double-harpoon 
fork,  derrick  forks,  and  four-, 
six-,  and  eight-tined  grapple 
forks.  To  replace  the  fork 
for  rapid  unloading  of  hay, 


FIG.  137 — A,  DOUBLE- HARPOON 
HAY  FORK.  B,  SINGLE-HAR- 
POON  HAY  FORK 


FIG.  138 — C,  A 
GRAPPLE  FORK. 
RICK  FORK 


FOUR-TINED 
D,    A    DER- 


i84 


FARM    MACHINERY 


the  hay  sling  is  used.  The  harpoon  forks  are  best 
adapted  for  the  handling  of  long  hay,  like  timothy.  For 
handling  clover,  alfalfa,  and  the  shorter  grasses,  the 
grapple  and  derrick  forks  are  generally  used.  The  der- 
rick fork  is  a  popular  style  for  field  stacking  in  some 
localities.  Harpoon  forks  have  fingers  which  hold  the  hay 
upon  the  tines  until  tripped.  The  tines  are  made  in 
lengths  varying  from  25  to  35  inches,  to  suit  the  condi- 
tions. The  grapple  fork  opens  and  closes  on  the  hay  like 
ice  tongs.  The  eight-tined  fork  is  suitable  for  handling 
manure. 

The  hay  sling  consists  of  a  pair  of  ropes  spread  with 
wooden  bars  and  provided  with  a  catch,  by  which  it  may 


FIG.    139 — A   HAY   SLING.      THE   SPRING   CATCH    BY    WHICH   THE   SLING    IS 
PARTED  IS  ABOVE  E 


be  separated  at  the  middle  for  discharging  a  sling  load. 
The  sling  is  placed  at  the  bottom  of  the  load,  and 
after  sufficient  hay  has  been  built  over  it  for  a  sling 
load,  another  sling  is  spread  between  the  ends  of  the 
hay  rack  and  another  sling  load  is  built  on,  and  so  on. 
Four  slings  are  usually  required  for  an  ordinary  load; 
however,  the  number  has  been  reduced  to  three,  and 
even  two.  The  sling  is  a  rapid  device,  but  is  some- 
what inconvenient  in  the  adjusting  of  the  ropes 
and  placing  in  the  load.  It  is  very  convenient  at  the 
finish,  as  the  load  is  cleaned  up  well  from  the  wagon 


HAYING  MACHINERY 


185 


rack,  requiring  little  hand  labor.  The  most  popular 
method  at  the  present  time  is  to  use  forks  to  remove  all 
the  load  but  one  slingful,  which  is  removed  by  a  sling 
placed  in  the  bottom  of  the  load.  This  method  circum- 
vents the  necessity  of  building  slings  into  the  load  or 
hand  labor  in  cleaning  up  the  load  for  the  fork  at  the 
finish.    If  the  standard  sling  carrier  is  used,  it  is  necessary 


FIG.    140 — A  TWO-WAY   FORK    HAY   CARRIER.      TO  WORK  IN   THE  OPPOSITE 

DIRECTION,  THE  ROPE  IS   SIMPLY   PULLED  THROUGH   UNTIL 

THE  KNOT  ON  THE  OPPOSITE  END  IS  STOPPED 

BY  THE   CARRIER 


to  use  two  forks ;  however,  a  special  fork  and  sling  carrier 
will  permit  the  use  of  a  single  fork. 

261.  Carriers. — Carriers   are   made   to  suit  all  of  the 
various  forms  of  tracks  and  are  made  one-way,  swivel, 


186 


FARM    MACHINERY 


and  reversible.  In  order  to  work  the  one-way  from  both 
ends  of  a  barn  it  is  necessary  to  take  it  ofif  the  track  and 
reverse.  The  swivel  needs  only  to  have  the  rope  turn  to 
the  opposite  direction,  while  in  the  reversible  the  rope 
is  knotted  at  each  end,  and  when  it  is  desired  to  work 


FIG.   141 — ^A  DOUBLE-CARRIAGE  REVERSIBLE  SLING  CARRIER. 
HEAVY  SERVICE 


DESIGNED  FOR 


from  the  other  end  of  the  barn  all  that  is  necessary  is 
simply  to  pull  the  rope  through  the  other  way. 

There  are  numerous  devices  to  be  used  with 
barn  outfits,  carrier  returns,  pulley-changing  devices, 
which  are  very  handy,  but  need  only  be  mentioned 
here. 


HAYING  MACHINERY 
BALING  PRESSES 


187 


262.  Development. — Many  patents  were  granted  on  baling 
presses  during  the  early  half  of  the  past  century,  indicating  the 
rise  of  the  problem  of  compressing  hay  into  a  form  in  which  it 
could  be  handled  with  greater  facility.  It  was  not,  however, 
until  1853  that  H.  L.  Emery,  of  Albany,  N.  Y.,  began  the  manu- 


FIG.   142 — A  LIGHTER  SLING  CARRIER  LOADED  WITH  A  SLING  LOAD  OF  HAY 

facture  of  hay  presses.  It  is  stated  that  this  early  machine  had 
a  capacity  of  five  250-pound  bales  an  hour  and  required  two 
men  and  a  horse  to  operate  it.  It  made  a  bale  24  X  24  X  48 
inches. 

The  next  man  to  devote  his  efforts  toward  the  development 
of  a  hay  press  with  any  success  was  P.  K.  Dederick,  who  began 
his    work    about    i860.      He    produced    a    practical    hay    press. 


l88  FARM    MACHINERY 

George  Ertel  was  the  pioneer  manufacturer  of  hay  presses  in 
the  West.  His  first  efforts  were  in  1866,  and  from  that  time  he 
devoted  practically  his  entire  time  to  the  manufacture  of  hay 
presses.  His  first  machine  was  a  vertical  one  operated  by  horse 
power.  Now  both  steam  and  gasoline  engines  are  used  to 
furnish  the  power. 

263.  Box  presses  are  used  very  little  at  present,  being 
superseded  by  the  continuous  machines  of  larger  capacity. 
The  box  press  consists  in  a  box  through  which  the 
plunger  or  compressor  acts  vertically,  power  being  fur- 
nished either  by  hand  or  by  a  horse.  The  box,  with  the 
plunger  down,  is  filled  with  hay;  the  plunger  is  then 
raised,  compressing  the  hay  into,  usually,  the  upper  end, 
where  it  is  tied  and  removed.  The  machine  is  then  pre- 
pared for  another  charge. 

264.  Horse-power  presses  are  either  one-half  circle  or 
full  circle.     In  the  half-circle  or  reversible-lever  presses 


FIG.   143 — A  FULL-CIRCLE  HORSE  HAY  PRESS  ON  TRUCKS  FOR 
TRANSPORTATION 

the  team  pulls  the  lever  to  one  side  and  then  turns  around 
and  pulls  it  to  the  other  side.  The  hay  is  placed  loose 
in  a  compressing  box,  compressed  at  each  stroke  and 
pushed  toward  the  open  end  of  the  frame,  where  it  is 
held  by  tension  or  pressure  on  the  sides.  When  a  bale 
of  sufficient  length  is  made  a  dividing  block  is  inserted 
and  the  bale  tied  with  wire. 

In  the  full-circle  press  the  team  is  required  to  travel 
in  a  circle.    Usually  two  strokes  are  made  to  one  round 


HAYING  MACHINERY  189 

of  the  team.  Various  devices  or  mechanisms  are  used  to 
obtain  power  for  the  compression.  It  is  desired  that  the 
motion  be  fast  at  the  beginning  of  the  stroke,  while  the 
hay  is  loose,  and  slow  while  the  hay  is  compressed  during 
the  latter  part  of  the  stroke.  The  cam  is  the  most  com- 
mon device  to  secure  this;  however,  gear  wheels  with  a 


FIG.   144 — A   HAY  PRESS  FOR  ENGINE  POWER  AND  EQUIPPED   WITH   A  CON- 
DENSER TO  THRUST  THE  HAY  INTO  THE  HOPPER 

cam  shape  are  often  used.  The  rebound  aided  by  a  spring 
is  usually  depended  upon  to  return  the  plunger  for  a  new 
stroke ;  but  a  cam  motion  may  be  made  use  of  to  return 
the  plunger.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  some  machines  use  a 
stiff  pitman  and  push  away  from  the  power,  while  others 
use  a  chain  and  rod  and  pull  the  pitman  toward  the  power 
or  reverse  the  direction  of  travel  of  the  plunger.  A  horse- 
power machine  has  an  average  capacity  of  about  18  tons 
a  day.  A  cubic  foot  of  hay  before  baling  weighs  4  or  5 
pounds  when  stored  in  the  mow  or  stack.  A  baling  press 
increases  its  density  to  16  or  30  pounds  a  cubic  foot. 
Specially  designed  presses  for  compressing  hay  for  export 
secure  as  high  as  40  pounds  of  hay  a  cubic  foot. 

265.  Power  presses  make  use  of  several  variable-speed 
devices  and  a  flywheel  to  store  energy  for  compression. 
Power  machines  are  often  provided  with  a  condenser  to 


IpO  •  FARM    MACHINERY 

thrust  the  hay  into  the  hopper  between  strokes.  The 
common  sizes  of  bales  made  are  14  X  18,  16  X  18,  and 
17  X  22  inches  in  cross-section,  and  of  any  length.  A  new 
baler  has  appeared  which  is"  very  rapid,  making  round 
bales  tied  with  twine.  The  machine  can  readily  handle 
the  straw  as  it  comes  from  a  large  thresher.  Plunger 
presses  are  built  with  a  capacity  up  to  90  tons  a  day. 


-SCt^ 


CHAPTER  IX 

MANURE   SPREADERS 

266.  Manure  as  a  fertilizer. — Although  the  manure 
spreader  has  been  a  practical  machine  for  some  time,  it, 
is  only  recently  that  its  use  has  become  general.  This  iS; 
especially  true  in  the  Middle  West,  where  for  a  long  time 
the  farmer  did  not  realize  the  need  of  applying  manure, 
owing  to  the  stored  fertility  in  the  soil  when  the  native 
sod  was  broken,  and  cultivated  crops  grown  for  the  first 
time.  It  has  been  proved  that  manure  has  many  advan- 
tages over  commercial  fertilizer  for  restoring  productive- 
ness to  the  land  after  cropping.  It  has  been  estimated 
by  experts  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture that  the  value  of  the  fertilizing  constituents  of  the 
manure  produced  annually  by  a  horse  is  %2y,  by  each 
head  of  cattle  $19,  by  each  hog  $12.  The  value  of  the 
manure  a  ton  was  also  estimated  at  $2  to  $7.  It  is  not 
known  from  what  data  these  estimates  were  made.  The 
value  of  manure  as  a  fertilizer  does  not  depend  solely 
upon  the  fact  that  it  adds  plant  food  to  the  soil,  but  its 
action  renders  many  of  the  materials  in  the  soil  available 
and  improves  the  physical  condition  of  the  soil. 

267.  Utility  of  the  manure  spreader. — As  it  was  with 
the  introduction  of  all  other  machines  which  have  dis- 
placed hand  methods,  there  is  much  discussion  for  and; 
against  the  use  of  the  manure  spreader.  The  greatest 
advantage  in  the  use  of  the  manure  spreader  lies  in  its 
ability  to  distribute  the  manure  economically.  Experi- 
ment has  shown  that,  in  some  cases  at  least,  as  good 


192  FARM    MACHINERY 

results  can  be  obtained  from  eight  loads  of  manure  to 
the  acre  as  twice  that  number.  It  is  impossible  to  dis- 
tribute and  spread  by  hand  in  as  light  a  distribution  as 
by  the  spreader.  The  manure  is  thoroughly  pulverized 
and  not  spread  in  large  bunches,  which  become  fire-fanged 
and  of  little  value  as  a  fertilizer.  It  is  a  conservative 
statement  that  the  manure  spreader  will  make  a  given 
amount  of  manure  cover  twice  the  ground  which  may  be 
covered  with  hand  spreading.  Since  a  light  distribution 
may  be  secured,  it  can  be  applied  as  a  top  dressing  to 
growing  crops,  such  as  hay  and  pasture,  without  smother- 
ing the  crop.  The  manure  spreader  also  saves  labor.  It 
is  capable  of  doing  the  work  of  five  men  in  spreading 
manure.  With  a  manure  loader  or  a  power  fork  it  is 
possible  to  handle  a  large  amount  of  manure  in  a  short 
time. 

268.  Development. — The  first  attempts  at  the  development  of 
a  machine  for  automatically  spreading  fertilizer  were  contem- 
poraneous with  a  machine  for  planting  or  seeding.  In  1830  two 
brothers,  by  the  name  of  Krause,  of  Pennsylvania,  patented  a 
machine  for  distributing  plaster  or  other  dry  fertilizer.  This 
machine  consisted  of  a  cart  with  a  bottom  sloping  to  the  rear, 
where  a  transverse  opening  was  provided  with  a  roller  under- 
neath. This  roller  was  driven  by  a  belt  passed  around  one  of 
the  wheel  hubs.     It  fed  the  fertilizer  through  the  opening. 

The  first  apron  machine  was  invented  by  J.  K.  Holland,  of 
North  Carolina,  in  1850.  The  endless  apron  was  attached  to 
a  rear  end  board  and  passed  over  a  bed  of  rollers  and  around 
a  shaft  driven  by  suitable  gearing  at  the  front  end  of  the  cart. 
After  the  box  had  been  filled  with  fertilizer  and  the  apron  put 
in  gear,  it  drew  the  fertilizer  to  the  front  and  caused  it  to  drop 
little  by  little  over  the  front  end. 

The  first  spreader  of  the  wagon  type  was  produced  by  J.  H. 
Stevens,  of  New  York,  in  1865.  His  machine  had  an  apron  which 
was  driven  rearward  by  suitable  gearing  to  discharge  the  load 
and  was  cranked  back  into  position  for  a  new  load.  The  later 
machines  were  provided  with  vibrating  forks  at  the  rear  end. 


MANURE  SPREADERS 


193 


which  fed  the  manure  to  fingers  extending  to  each  side,  and 
securing  in  this  way  a  better  distribution  of  the  fertilizer  than 
the  former  ways.  Thomas  McDonald,  in  1876,  secured  a  patent 
on  a  machine  much  like  the  Stevens  machine,  except  that  it  was 


FIG.   145 — THE  J.   S.    KEMP  MACHINE  OF   1877.       (fROM    A  PATENT  OFFICE 

drawing) 


provided   with   an   endless   apron  passing  around   the   roller  at 
each  end  of  the  vehicle. 

Many  of  the  ideas  of  the  modern  spreader  made  their  appear- 
ance in  the  patent  of  J.  S.  Kemp,  granted  in  1877.  The  objects 
of  the  invention  read  as  follows :  "To  provide  a  farm  wagon  or 
cart  with  a  movable  floor  composed  of  slats  secured  to  an  end- 
less belt  or  chain.    To  the  foremost  slat  an  end  board  is  secured. 


194  FARM    MACHINERY 

which,  when  the  machine  is  in  forward  motion,  moves  by  a 
suitable  gearing  slowly  to  the  rear,  thus  propelling  the  material 
that  may  be  loaded  in  the  vehicle  against  a  rotating  toothed 
drum,  which  pulverizes  and  evenly  spreads  the  load  on  the 
ground  behind." 

A  spreader  with  a  solid  bottom  to  the  box  over  which  the 
manure  was  drawn  by  chains  with  slats  across  and  attached 
to  an  end  board,  appeared  in  1884.  Variable-speed  devices  for 
varying  the  rate  of  distribution  were  provided  at  the  same  time. 

An  endless  apron  machine  appeared  in  1900,  with  hinged  slats 
which  overlapped  while  traveling  rearward,  and  which  hung 
downward  while  traveling  ahead  on  the  under  side,  making 
an  open  apron.  There  is  a  tendency  on  the  part  of  endless  apron 
machines  to  become  fouled  by  the  manure  which  passes  through 
the  apron  on  the  upper  side  and  lodges  on  the  inside  of  the 
lower  half. 

It  would  be  impracticable  to  mention  all  of  the  improvements 
to  manure  spreaders  along  the  line  of  return  motions,  variable- 
feed  devices,  safety  end  boards,  and  almost  countless  details 
in  the  construction  of  bed,  apron,  and  beater. 


THE  MODERN   SPREADER 

The  modern  manure  spreader  consists  essentially  in 
(a)  a  box  with  flexible  apron  for  a  bottom,  (b)  gearing 
to  move  the  apron  to  the  rear  at  a  variable  speed,  and 
(c)  a  toothed  drum  or  beater  to  pulverize  and  spread  the 
manure  evenly  behind. 

269.  Aprons. — Three  types  of  aprons  or  box  bottoms 
are  to  be  found  in  use  on  the  modern  spreader: 
(a)  a  return  apron  (Fig.  146),  with  an  end  board  which 
pulls  the  load  to  the  beater  by  being  drawn  under  the 
box;  (b)  the  endless  apron  (Fig.  147),  which  is  com- 
posed of  slats  or  bats  passing  continuously  around  reels 
at  each  end  of  the  box ;  and  (c)  bars  or  a  push  board, 
moved  by  chains,  thus  moving  the  load  to  the  beater 
over  a  solid  floor. 


MANURE  SPREADERS  1 95 

The  endless  apron  spreader  is  perhaps  of  more  simple 
construction  than  the  others,  as  no  return  motion  is 
needed  to  return  the  apron  for  another  load.  It  will  not 
distribute  the  load  well  at  the  finish  because  it  does  not 


FIG.     146 — A    RETURN    APRON    SPREADER^    SHOWING    THE    APRON     UNDER- 
NEATH, AND  ALSO  A  GEAR  AND  CHAIN  DRIVE  TO  BEATER 

have  the  end  board  to  push  the  last  of  the  load  to  the 
beater.  There  is  also  some  difficulty  in  preventing  the 
inside  of  the  apron  from  being  fouled  with  manure.  One 
make  overcomes  this  difficulty  by  hinging  the  slats  in  a 


FIG.  147— AN  ENDLESS  APRON" 


way  that  they  may  hang  vertically  while  on  the  lower 
side.  To  prevent  fouling,  the  endless  apron  may  be  cov- 
ered with  slats  for  only  half  its  length.  The  chain  apron 
without  doubt  requires  much  more  power  than  the  others, 
since   the   weight   is   not   carried   upon   rollers.     Some 


196  FARM    MACHINERY 

Spreaders  have  an  advantage  over  others  in  the  arrange- 
ment of  rollers  and  the  track  on  which  they  roll.  The 
rollers  may  be  either  attached  to  the  bed  or  to  the  slats. 
270.  Main  drive. — The  main  drive  to  the  beater  varies 
with  different  machines.  The  power  may  be  taken  from 
the  main  axle  with  a  large  gear  wheel  or  by  means  of  a 
large  sprocket  and  a  heavy  chain  or  link  belt.     It  is 


FIG.    148 — A   CHAIN   DRIVE   TO   THE  BEATER.       NOTE  THE   METHOD   OF 

REVERSING  THE   MOTION 

almost  universal  practice  to  use  a  combination  of  a  chain 
and  a  gear  in  the  drive.  The  speed  of  the  beater  must 
be  such  that  the  speed  of  the  traction  wheels  must  be  in- 
creased twice,  while  the  direction  of  rotation  must  be  re- 
versed. To  reverse  the  direction  of  the  motion,  the  gear 
is  used.  The  heavy  chain  or  link  belt  offers  some  advan- 
tage in  case  of  breakage.  A  single  link  may  be  replaced 
at  a  small  cost,  while  if  a  tooth  is  broken  from  a  large 
gear  the  entire  wheel  must  be  replaced. 


MANURE  SPREADERS 


197 


The  use  of  gears  is  avoided  entirely  in  at  least  one 
make  by  passing  the  drive  chain  over  the  top  of  the 
•main  sprocket  and  back  instead  of  around  it.  This  re- 
verses the  direction  of  rotation  (Fig.  148).  Some 
spreaders  are  so  arranged  that  a  large  part  of  the  main 
drive  must  be  kept  in  motion  even  when  the  machines  are 
out  of  gear.     The  gearing  must  be  well  protected,  or  it 


FIG.    149 — A    CHAIN   AND   GEAR    DRIVE   TO    THE   BEATER.      THE    BEATER  IS 
PLACED    IN   GEAR   BY    MOVING   BACK    UNTIL    GEARS    MESH 


will  become  fouled  in  loading.  The  main  axle  must  be 
very  heavy  on  a  spreader,  as  a  large  share  of  the  load  is 
placed  upon  it,  and  it  must  not  spring  or  it  will  increase 
the  draft  greatly.  Large  bearings  should  be  provided 
with  a  reliable  means  of  oiling  and  excluding  dirt. 

271.  Beaters. — The  beater  is  usually  composed  of  eight 
bars  filled  with  teeth  or  pegs  for  tearing  apart  and  pul- 


198 


FARM    MACHINERY 


verizing  the  manure  (Fig.  150).  Some  variance  is  noticed 
in  the  diameter  of  the  beater  and  its  location  as  to  height. 
It  is  claimed  by  certain  manufacturers  that  much  power 

FIG.   150 — ^A  MANURE  SPREADER  BEATER 

may  be  saved  by  building  the  beater  large  and  placing  it 
low ;  in  this  way  there  is  no  tendency  to  compress  the 
manure  on  the  lower  side  of  the  beater,  as  it  is  not  neces- 
sary to  carry   the   manure   forward   and   up.     When  a 


FIG.    151 — A   MANURE  SPREADER   WITH    AN    END  BOARD   TO   BE   PLACED  IN 
FRONT   OF  THE  BEATER 

beater  is  so  placed  it  does  not  have  the  pulverizing  eflfect 
it  would  have  otherwise.  When  a  load  is  placed  upon  a 
spreader  it  is  usually  much  higher  and  more  compact  in 


MANURE  SPREADERS 


199 


the  center.  If  due  provision  is  not  made,  the  spreader 
will  spread  heavier  at  the  center  than  at  the  sides.  One 
beater  has  the  teeth  arranged  in  diagonal  rows,  tending 
to  carry  the  manure  from  the  center  to  the  sides.  Sev- 
eral have  leveling  rakes  in  front  of  the  beater,  and  at 
least  one  a  vibrating  rake,  to  level  and  help  pulverize 
the  manure.  If  no  provision  is  made,  the  front  of  the 
beater  will  be  filled  with  manure  while  loading,  and  the 


FIG.   152 — A  RATCHET  DRIVE  FOR  THE  APRON,      NOTE   METHOD  OF   VARYING 

THE    FEED 


machine  will  not  only  be  difficult  to  start,  but  will  carry 
over  a  heavy  bunch  of  manure  when  put  in  motion.  To 
surmount  this  difficulty,  the  beater  in  some  makes  is 
made  to  move  back  from  the  load  when  put  in  gear.  A 
few  machines  have  an  end  board,  which  is  dropped  in 
front  of  the  beater  while  the  load  is  put  on,  and  lifted 
when  spreading  is  begun. 

272.  Apron  drives.— At  least  two   systems   of   apron 
drives  are  in  use:  (a)  the  ratchet,  and  (b)  the  screw  or 


200  FARM    MACHINERY 

worm  gear  drive,  the  feed  being  regulated  in  the  latter 
case  with  a  face  gear  or  cone  gears  and  a  flexible  shaft. 
The  ratchet  drive  (Fig.  152)  has  an  advantage  in  offering 
a  great  range  of  speed.  As  many  as  ten  speeds  for  the 
apron,  or  in  reality  ten  rates  of  feed,  may  be  obtained. 
However,  the  motion  is  intermittent  and  heavy  strains 
are  thrown  upon  the  driving  mechanism  by  the  sudden 
starting  of  the  heavy  load.  The  ratchet  drive  is  liable 
to  breakage  and  does  not  prevent  the  load  from  feeding 
too  fast  in  ascending  a  hill  owing  to  the  tendency  of  the 


FIG.    153— THE    WORM    GEAR   DRIVE  TO    THE   APRON.       ALSO   FACE  GEAR   FOR 
VARYING   THE    FEED 

load  to  run  back.    To  prevent  this  a  brake  is  used,  but 
must  be  unsatisfactory. 

The  worm  drive,  on  the  other  hand,  gives  a  constant 
motion  to  the  apron,  but  does  not  offer  a  great  variety  of 
feeds,  and  unless  carefully  attended  to  wears  out  quickly. 
Fig.  153  shows  a  worm  drive  with  a  face  gear  for  vary- 
ing the  feed.  The  worm  drive  must  be  greased  several 
times  each  day  or  it  will  cut  out.  It  has  been  known  for 
a  worm  gear  to  wear  out  in  a  single  day's  work.  The 
cone  gear  for  varying  the  speed  is  very  little  used,  but 
seems  to  be  a  satisfactory  drive. 


MANURE  SPREADERS  20T 

The  return  motion  is  usually  independent  of  the  for- 
ward motion,  a  safety  device  being  arranged  to  prevent 
both  forward  and  return  motions  being  put  in  gear  at 
the  same  time.  In  the  early  machines  the  apron  v^as  re- 
turned by  hand,  but  now^  power  is  universally  used.  A 
crank  is  sometimes  provided  by  which  the  apron  may  be 
returned  by  hand  if  desired.  The  endless  apron,  of 
course,  requires  no  return  motion. 

273.  Wheels. — At  the  present  time  there  is  some  dis- 
cussion in  regard  to  the  merits  of  wood  and  metal  wheels 
for  manure  spreaders.  The  large  cast  hub  needed  to 
carry  the  driving  pawls  or  the  main  ratchet  is  favorable 
to  the  use  of  a  wood  wheel.  This  type  of  wheel  has 
been  displaced  on  practically  all  other  implements,  and 
it  is  safe  to  venture  an  opinion  that  it  will  be  displaced 
in  time  on  the  manure  spreader.  Wide  tires  of  5  or  6 
inches  are  essential  on  the  manlire  spreader.  In  order  to 
secure  greater  traction  the  wheels  must  often  be  provided 
with  grouters  or  traction  bands.  The  traction  band  may 
be  removed  when  not  needed,  permitting  the  spreader  to 
travel  more  smoothly  over  hard  ground. 

274.  Trucks. — As  now  constructed,  the  manure  spreader 
has  a  low  front  truck  arranged  to  turn  under  the  bed. 
A  low  truck  offers  an  advantage  in  loading,  but  un- 
doubtedly is  of  heavier  draft.  A  narrow  front  truck  pre- 
vents a  lashing  of  the  neck  yoke  in  passing  over  uneven 
ground. 

275.  The  frame  of  a  manure  spreader  must  be  con- 
structed of  good  material,  and  should  also  be  well  braced 
and  trussed  with  iron  rods.  Not  only  must  the  material 
be  strong,  but  also  able  to  resist  the  rotting  action  of 
the  manure. 

276.  Simplicity. — It  is  desirable  that  the  manure 
spreader  as  well  as  other  machines  shall  be  as  simple  as 


202  FARM    MACHINERY 

possible.  Multiplied  systems  of  gearing  and  levers  are 
not  desirable  on  any  machine.  The  best  results  are  ob- 
tained from  few  working  parts,  provided  they  will  do  the 
work. 

277.  Sizes. — The  capacity  of  manure  spreaders  is  given 
in  bushels,  yet  there  appears  to  be  very  little  connection 
between  the  bushel  and  capacity  of  manure  spreaders. 
By  measuring,  it  has  been  found  that  certain  spreaders' 
capacity  would  be  more  nearly  correct  if  given  in  cubic 
feet  instead  of  bushels. 

278.  Drilling  attachment. — To  apply  manure  to  grow- 
ing crops  planted  in  rows  and  to  economize  the  manure, 
a  drilling  attachment  is  provided.  It  consists  in  a  hood 
for  the  beater,  with  funnels  below,  from  which  the 
manure  is  discharged  beside  or  on  each  row.  The  at- 
tachment may  also  be  used  to  distribute  lime  and  other 
fertilizers. 

279.  Other  uses. — The  manure  spreader  may  be  used 
to  distribute  straw  and  other  material  for  mulching. 
With  the  beater  removed,  the  manure  spreader  may  be 
used  as  a  dump  wagon  for  hauling  and  dumping  stone, 
gravel,  etc.  It  is  especially  useful  in  hauling  potatoes 
and  root  crops  where  they  are  to  be  dumped  into  a  chute 
leading  to  the  root  cellar.  The  apron  in  this  case  is 
moved  back  by  hand  power  by  means  of  a  crank  pro- 
vided for  the  purpose. 


CHAPTER  X 
THRESHING  MACHINERY 

280.  Development. — In  the  oldest  of  writings  mention 
is  made  of  the  crude  devices  by  which  grain  in  the 
ancient  times  was  separated  from  the  straw.  Although 
mention  of  mechanical  devices  was  m^de  at  a  very  early 
time,  the  two  methods  which  came  into  extended  use 
were  treading  with  animals  and  beating  the  grains  from 
the  ears  with  a  flail.  The  flail  was  nothing  more  nor  less 
than  a  short  club  usually  connected  to  a  handle  with  a 
piece  of  leather.  This  long  handle  enabled  the  operator 
to  remain  in  an  upright  position  and  strike  the  un- 
threshed  grain  upon  the  floor  a  sharp  blow.  After  the 
grain  was  threshed  from  the  head  or  ear,  the  straw  was 
carefully  raked  away  and  the  grain  separated  from  the 
chafT  by  throwing  it  into  the  air  and  letting  the  wind 
blow  out  the  chafT,  or  by  fanning  while  pouring  from  a 
vessel  in  a  thin  stream.  Later  a  fanning  mill  was  in- 
vented to  separate  the  grain  from  the  chaff. 

Flailing  was  the  common  method  of  threshing  grain 
as  late  as  1850.  In  regard  to  the  amount  of  grain 
threshed  in  a  day  with  a  flail,  S.  E.  Todd  makes  the  fol- 
lowing statement  in  Thomas's  book  on  Farm  Machin- 
ery :  "I  have  threshed  a  great  deal  of  grain  of  all  kinds 
with  my  own  flail,  and  a  fair  average  quantity  of  grain 
that  an  ordinary  laborer  will  be  able  to  thresh  and  clean 
in  a  day  is  7  bushels  of  wheat,  18  bushels  of  oats,  15 
bushels  of  barley,  8  bushels  of  rye,  or  20  bushels  of 
buckwheat." 


204 


FARM    MACHINERY 


281.  Early  Scotch  and  English  machines. — About  the  year  1750 
a  Scotchman  named  Michael  Menzies  devised  a  machine  which 
seems  to  have  been  nothing  more  nor  less  than  several  flails 
operated  by  water  power.  This  machine  was  not  practical,  but 
in  1758  a  Mr.  Lechie,  of  Stirlingshire,  England,  invented  a 
machine  with  arms  attached  to  a  shaft  and  inclosed  in  a  case. 
Lechie's  machine  gave  the  idea  for  the  more  successful  machines 
which  came  later. 

A  Mr.  Atkinson,  of  Yorkshire,  devised  a  machine  (the  date  is 


FIG.  154 — A  THRESHING  MACHINE  IN  OPERATION.    THE  GRAIN  IS  SUPPLIED 

TO   THE  MACHINE  FROM   ONE   SIDE  IN   ORDER  TO  OBTAIN   A 

BETTER  VIEW   Of  THE   MACHINE 


not  known)  having  a  cylinder  with  teeth,  or  a  peg  drum,  as  it 
was  called,  and  these  teeth  ran  across  other  rows  of  teeth,  which 
acted  as  concaves. 

282.  American  development.— The  Pitts  brothers  have  figured 
more  prominently  than  any  two  other  men  in  the  early  develop- 
ment of  threshing  machines  in  America.  Others  were  granted 
patents,  but  to  these  men  credit  should  be  given  for  inventing 
and  manufacturing  the  first  practical  machine.    These  brothers 


THRESHING  MACHINERY 


205 


were  Hiram  A.  and  John  A.  Pitts,  of  Winthrop,  Maine.  A  patent 
was  granted  to  them  December  29,  1837,  on  a  thresher,  the  first 
of  the  "endless  apron"  type.  This  machine  was  made  not  only 
to  thresh  the  grain,  but  to  separate  it  from  the  straw  and  the 
chaff.  Although  this  machine  as  constructed  by  the  Pitts 
brothers  was  different  from  the  modern  separator,  it  contained 
many  of  the  essential  features.  It  had  but  a  single  apron.  The 
tailings  elevator  returned  the  tailings  behind  the  cylinder  over 


FIG.    155— THRESHING    MACHINE  OF    1867 


the  sieves  to  be  recleaned,  instead  of  into  the  cylinder,  as  now 
arranged. 

In  the  Twelfth  Census  Report,  the  following  statement  is 
made:  "The  first  noteworthy  threshing  or  separating  machine 
invented  in  the  United  States  which  was  noticeable  was  that  of 
Hiram  A.  and  John  A.  Pitts,  of  Winthrop,  Maine,  and  may  be 
said  to  be  the  prototype  of  the  machines  used  at  the  present 
time." 

The  first  machines  and  horse  powers  to  drive  them  were 
satisfactory.  The  machine  was  finally  made  so  it  could  be  loaded 
on  trucks,  transported  from  place  to  place,  and  set  by  removing 
the  trucks  and  staking  lo  the  ground.  This  type  of  machine 
received  the  name  of  "groundhog  thresher."    Later  the  machines 


206 


FARM    MACHINERY 


were  mounted 


on  wheels,  and  hence  were  quite  portable.  The 
early  horse  power  consisted 
of  a  vertical  shaft  mounted 
between  beams,  to  which  a 
sweep  was  attached.  The 
power  was  taken  by  a  tumb- 
ling rod  from  a  master 
wheel  mounted  above.  This 
type  earned  the  name  of 
"cider-mill"  power.  Tread 
power  was  used  largely  to 
operate  the  early  threshers, 
and  water  power  to  some 
extent.  John  A.  Pitts  fin- 
ally located  a  factory  at 
Buffalo,  New  York,  and  the 
^'Buffalo  Pitts"  thresher  be- 
came well  known  through- 
out the  country.  This  ma- 
chine is  manufactured  to-day 
with  some  of  the  original 
features.  John  Pitts  died  in 
1859.  Hiram  A.  Pitts  moved 
to  Chicago  in  1852  and 
established  a  factory  which 
built  what  was  known  as 
the  "Chicago  Pitts."  He 
died  in  i860.  Much  credit 
is  due  to  these  men  for  the 
development  of  a  practical 
threshing  machine. 

THE  MODERN  THRESH- 
ING MACHINE   OR 
SEPARATOR 

283.  Operations. — The 
threshing  machine  as  it  is 
constructed  to-day  per- 
forms four  distinct  opera- 


J 


THRESHING  MACHINERY 


207 


tions.  These  operations  and  the  parts  that  are  called  upon 
to  perform  them  in  most  machines  may  be  enumerated  as 
follows : 

First,  shelling  the  grain  from  the  head.  The  parts 
which  do  the  shelling  or  the  threshing  are  the  cylinder  and 
the  concaves  with  their  teeth.    Fig.  157  shows  these  parts. 

Second,  separating  the  straw  from  the  grain  and  chaff. 
The  parts  which  perform  this  operation  are  the  grate,  the 
beater,  the  checkboard,  and  the  straw  rack,  or  raddk. 


FIG.    157— THE   CYLINDER  AND  CONCAVE 


Third,  separating  the  grain  from  the  chaff  and  dirt,  per- 
formed by  the  shoe,  fan,  windboard,  screens,  and  tailings 
elevator. 

Fourth,  delivering  the  grain  to  one  place  and  the  straw 
to  another,  which  is  accomplished  by  the  grain  elevator 
and  the  stacker  or  straw  carrier. 

Other  attachments,  as  the  self-feeder  and  weigher,  are 
often  provided.  / 

These  parts  vv^ill  now  be  discussed  somewhat  in  detail. 

284.  Cylinder. — The  cylinder  is  usually  made  by  at- 
taching parallel  bars  to  the  outer  edge  of  spiders  mounted 
on  the  cylinder  shaft.    The  whole  is  made  very  rigid  by 


2o8  FARM    MACHINERY 

shrinking  wrought-iron  bands  over  the  bars.  A  solid 
cylinder  may  be  used  instead  of  the  bars.  The  bars  in  some 
makes  are  made  of  two  pieces,  and  hence  are  called 
double-barred  cylinders.  The  teeth  are  held  in  place  by 
nuts  or  wedges,  and  are  often  provided  with  lock  washers. 
Wooden  bars  may  be  placed  under  the  nuts  and  act  as  a 
cushion,  preventing  the  teeth  from  loosening  as  readily 
as  otherwise.  The  cylinder  has  usually  9,  12,  or  20  bars, 
the  latter  being  spoken  of  as  a  big  cylinder. 

The  cylinder  travels  with  a  peripheral  speed  of  about 
6,000  feet  a  minute.  The  usual  speed  for  the  12-bar 
cylinder  is  1,100  revolutions  per  minute,  and  of  the  20-bar 
cylinder  is  800  revolutions  per  minute.  A  large  amount  of 
power  is  stored  in  the  cylinder  when  in  motion  and 
enables  the  machine  to  maintain  its  speed  when  an  undue 
amount  of  straw  enters  the  cylinder  at  a  time. 

The  kernels  of  grain  should  be  removed  from  the  heads 
and  retaining  hulls  in  passing  through  the  cylinder.  The 
other  devices  in  the  machine  do  not  have  a  threshing 
effect.  In  threshing  damp,  tough  grain,  a  higher  speed 
must  be  maintained  than  when  threshing  dry  grain.  It 
is  attempted,  however,  to  run  the  cylinder  at  about  uni- 
form speed  in  nearly  all  cases. 

As  the  cylinder  is  heavy  and  travels  at  a  high  speed, 
it  must  be  properly  balanced,  or  it  will  not  run  smoothly. 
In  the  factory  the  cylinder  is  made  up  and  then  balanced 
by  running  at  a  high  speed  on  loose  boxes.  The  heavy 
side  is  located  by  holding  a  piece  of  chalk  against  the 
cylinder  while  in  motion.  When  the  cylinder  teeth  be- 
come worn  they  must  be  replaced  with  new  teeth,  which 
are  heavier,  so  that  there  is  a  tendency  to  put  the  cylinder 
out  of  balance.  After  putting  in  new  teeth  the  cylinder 
may  be  balanced  by  removing  from  the  machine  and 
mounting  it  on  two  level  straight  edges  placed  on  saw 


THRESHING  MACHINERY  209 

horses  or  trestles.  Two  steel  carpenter's  squares  will 
answer  for  straight  edges.  The  heavy  side  of  the  cylin- 
der will  be  found,  because  it  wall  come  to  rest  at  the 
lower  side.  Weights  may  be  added  in  the  shape  of  nuts 
and  wedges  to  bring  the  cylinder  into  balance.  This 
latter  method  will  not  bring  the  cylinder  into  perfect 
balance,  as  one  end  may  be  heavy  on  one  side,  while  at 
the  opposite  end  the  other  side  will  be  the  heavier,  and 
the  cylinder  will  appear  to  be  in  perfect  balance  on  the 
straight  edges. 

The  cylinder  must  have  end  adjustment  in  order  that 
its  teeth  will  travel  directly  between  the  concave  teeth. 
If  the  cylinder  teeth  travel  close  to  the  concave  teeth  on 
one  side  they  will  crack  the  kernels  and  break  up  the 
straw,  and  thus  leave  a  larger  opening  on  the  opposite 
side  through  which  the  grain  may  pass  unthreshed.  It 
is  advisable  that  the  cylinder  shaft  be  heavy  and 
equipped  with  self-aligning  boxes  provided  with  a  re- 
liable oiling  device.  Some  machines  are  made  with  an 
''outboard"  bearing  on  the  pulley  end  of  shaft,  i.  e.,  out- 
side of  main  drive  pulley.  This  arrangement  is  strong 
but  somewhat  difficult  to  line  up,  and  the  belt  cannot  be 
detached  readily. 

285.  The  concave  received  its  name  from  its  shape 
being  hollowed  out  to  conform  to  the  shape  of  the 
cylinder.  The  concave  carries  teeth  which  resemble  the 
cylinder  teeth  very  much,  and  have  openings  through 
which  some  of  the  threshed  grain  may  fall.  It  is  made 
in  sections,  so  the  number  of  teeth  may  be  varied 
by  substituting  different  sections.  It  may  be  moved 
or  adjusted  to  or  from  the  cylinder.  In  some  machines 
the  adjustment  may  be  made  at  the  front  and  at  the 
rear  independently  of  each  other,  it  being  claimed  that 
an  advantage   is  gained  by   having  the  concave  lower 


210  FARM   MACHINERY 

at  the  rear  in  order  that  a  larger  opening  be  provided 
for  the  straw  to  pass  through  as  it  is  expanded  in  the 
operation  of  threshing.  As  a  rule,  it  is  advisable  to  use 
few  rows  of  concave  teeth  and  set  them  well  up  against 
the  cylinder,  as  there  is  little  chance  of  the  concave  be- 
coming clogged. 

286.  Cylinder  and  concave  teeth. — The  teeth  in  both 
the  cylinder  and  the  concave  are  curved  backward 
slightly  to  prevent  the  straw  being  carried  past  the  cylin- 
der without  being  threshed.  Teeth  become  more  rounded 
by  use  and  reduce  the  capacity  and  interfere  with  the 
proper  working  of  the  machine.  It  is  stated  that  a  very 
large  amount  of  power  is  required  when  the  teeth  become 
rounded  off.    When  worn  the  teeth  should  be  replaced, 

making  it  necessary  to  bal- 
ance the  cylinder  before  re- 
placing in  the  machine,  and 
also  calling  for  watchfulness 
on  the  part  of  the  thresher 
lest  some  of  the  new  teeth 
become  loose  and  cause 
damage.  The  teeth  are  usu- 
ally made  of  a  good  grade  of 
mild  steel,  yet  certain  manu- 
facturers prefer  tool  steel 
with  a  hardened  edge.  No 
doubt  the  latter  wear  better. 

FIG.   158 — THE  GRATE  AND  CONCAVE  o         rr>u  j.  '    j.         £ 

287.  The  grate  consists  of 
parallel  bars,  with  openings  between,  designed  to  retard 
the  straw  and  allow  a  large  portion  of  the  grain  to  pass 
through  to  the  grain  conveyor  before  reaching  the  straw 
rack  (Fig.  158). 

288.  The  beater. — After  passing  through  the  cylinder 
and  concave  and  over  the  grate  the  grain  comes  in  con- 


THRESHING  MACHINERY 


211 


tact  with  the  beater.  The  beater  (Fig.  159)  is  a  fan-like 
device  which  tends  to  carry  the  straw  away  from  the 
cylinder  and  forms  a  stream  of  straw  to  pass  over  the 
straw  rack.  Some  makers  make  use  of  two  beaters,  one 
above  the  straw  and  one  below,  in  an  effort  to  separate 
the  grain  and  chaff  from  the  straw.     The  beater  must 


FIG.     159 THE    BEATER 

run  at  high  enough  speed  to  enable  the  centrifugal  force 
to  prevent  the  straw  from  wrapping  around  it. 

289.  The  checkboard. — The  purpose  of  the  checkboard 
is  to  stop  the  kernels  which  may  be  thrown  from  the 
beater.  It  is  usually  constructed  of  sheet  iron  and  al- 
lowed to  drag  over  the  stream  of  straw. 

290.  Straw  rack. — The  straw  rack  is  for  the  purpose  of 
carrying  the  straw  away  from  the  cylinder  and  shaking 


FIG.    160 — ONE   TYPE   OF    STRAW    RACK 


the  grain  down  on  the  grain  conveyor  below.  Straw 
racks  are  of  three  types:  (a)  endless  apron  or  raddle 
type,  (b)  oscillating  racks,  (c)  vibrating  racks. 

The  endless  apron  or  raddle  rack  consists  of  a  web 
with  thumpers  underneath  to  shake  the  grain  to  the  bot- 
tom. It  is  usually  made  in  sections  with  an  opening 
between    which    permits    the    grain    and    chaff    to    fall 


212  FARM    MACHINERY 

through.  The  endless  apron  was  the  first  device  used 
and  is  now  found  in  only  a  few  machines,  and  there  only 
in  short  lengths. 

The  oscillating  rack  is  made  in  sections  and  attached 
to  a  crank  shaft  directly.  The  sections  are  made  to  bal- 
ance each  other  and  ofifer  a  great  advantage  in  this  re- 
spect. An  oscillator  is  a  very  good  device  for  separating 
the  grain,  but  perhaps  somewhat  difficult  to  keep  in  re- 
pair. 

The  vibrating  rack  may  be  made  in  one  or  more  sec- 
tions. When  made  in  one  section  there  is  usually  an 
attempt  to  balance  its  motion  with  that  of  the  grain  pan. 
The  rack  is  provided  with  notched  fingers,  called  **fish- 
backs."  These  are  given  a  backward  and  upward  thrust 
by  a  pitman  attached  to  a  crank,  causing  the  rack  to 
swing  on  its  supports.  This  motion  causes  the  straw  to 
move  backward  and  at  the  same  time  be  thoroughly  agi- 
tated. Machines  are  constructed  with  two  racks,  the 
upper  to  carry  off  the  coarse  straw  and  a  lower  to  sepa- 
rate the  finer.  The  double  rack  permits  of  their  motion 
being  balanced  the  same  as  the  rack  built  in  two 
sections. 

291.  The  grain  conveyor  or  grain  pan  extends  from 
under  the  cylinder  back  almost  the  full  length  of  the 
machine.  Its  function  is  to  convey  the  grain  to  the 
cleaning  mechanism.  It  should  be  of  light,  yet  strong, 
construction.  It  must  not  sag,  or  grain  will  be  pocketed 
in  such  a  manner  that  its  motion  will  not  cause  it  to 
pass  on. 

292.  Chaffer. — At  the  end  of  the  grain  conveyor  and 
really  forming  a  part  of  it  is  the  chaffer,  which  is  a  sieve 
with  large  openings  permitting  all  but  the  coarse  straw 
to  pass  through.  A  part  of  the  blast  from  the  fan  passes 
through  the  chaffer,  and  a  large  portion  is  carried  off  in 


THRESHING  MACHINERY  213 

this  manner.  At  the  back  of  the  chaffer  is  placed  the 
tailings  auger,  which  catches  the  part  heads  and  grains 
with  the  outer  hulls,  to  return  them  by  way  of  the  tail- 
ings elevator  to  the  cylinder  to  be  rethreshed.  Over  the 
tailings  auger  an  adjustable  conveyor  extension  is 
usually  placed  to  aid  in  stopping  the  unthreshed  heads. 

293.  The  shoe. — The  shoe  is  the  box  in  which  the 
sieves  are  mounted,  and  which  has  a  tight,  sloping  bot- 
tom to  carry  the  threshed  grain  to  the  grain  auger.  The 
shoe  is  always  given  a  motion  to  shake  the  grain  through 


FIG.    161 — FAN,    SHOE,   AND   CHAFFER 

it.  If  this  motion  be  lengthwise  with  the  machine,  it  is 
said  to  have  end  shake;  if  across  the  machine,  it  is  said 
to  have  cross  shake.  The  latter  is  used  very  little  at 
present. 

294.  The  sieves. — The  sieves  consist  of  a  wooden 
frame  covered  with  woven  wire  cloth  or  a  perforated 
sheet  of  metal.  Adjustable  sieves  are  constructed  in 
which  the  size  of  openings  may  be  adjusted  to  suit  the 
work  done.  The  openings  in  the  sieve  should  be  large 
enough  to  permit  the  passage  of  the  kernel  downward. 


214  FARM    MACHINERY 

and  of  sufficient  number  to  permit  the  blast  to  pass 
upward  through  it.  The  sieve  must  be  well  enough  sup- 
ported so  it  will  not  sag  when  loaded,  or  the  grain  will 
settle  to  the  low  spot  and  clog  the  sieve.  The  frame 
should  be  strong,  and  perhaps  reenforced  v^ith  a  malle- 
able casting  at  each  of  the  corners. 

295.  The  fan  consists  of  a  series  of  blades  or  w^ings 
mounted  on  a  shaft.  A  blast  is  thus  created  to  blow  the 
chaff  from  the  grain.  An  overblast  fan  delivers  the  blast 
backward  from  the  blades  at  the  upper  portion  of  the 
fan  drum.  The  underblast  fan  rotates  in  the  opposite 
direction  and  delivers  the  blast  from  the  lower  blades. 
Since  there  is  a  tendency  to  create  a  stronger  blast  from 
the  center  of  the  fan  than  from  any  other  part,  bands  are 
placed  in  the  fan  by  some  manufacturers  to  distribute 
the  blast  more  evenly  across  the  width  of  the  shoe. 

ATTACHMENTS 

296.  The  self-feeder  and  band  cutter. — The  work  of 
the  self-feeder  is  to  cut  the  bands  of  the  bound  grain, 
distribute  it  across  the  mouth  of  the  separator,  and  de- 
liver it  to  the  cylinder.  To  carry  the  bundles  to  the 
band  cutters,  the  feeder  must  be  provided  with  a  carrier. 
A  variety  of  carriers  is  found  in  use  ranging  from  a  solid 
canvas  or  rubber  belt  to  two  belts  or  link  belts  carrying 
slats.    Both  seem  to  be  very  satisfactory. 

The  band  cutters  may  be  knives  attached  to  a  rotating 
shaft,  or  knives  similar  to  those  in  use  upon  mowers,  the 
latter  style  of  knife  giving  a  chopping-like  motion  into 
the  bundle,  tending  to  draw  them  into  the  machine.  It 
is  claimed  that  this  type  is  much  better  in  remaining 
sharp  for  a  longer  time.  It  is  not,  however,  of  as  simple 
construction. 


THRESHING  MACHINERY 


215 


Just  before  the  grain  enters  the  cylinder  it  is  spread 
and  more  evenly  distributed  by  the  retarders,  which  also, 
as  their  name  implies,  prevent  the  grain  from  bemg 
drawn  into  the  cylinder  in  bunches. 

297.  Stackers. — The  straw  carrier  was  for  a  long  time 
the  only  means  of  carrying  the  straw  away  from  the 
machine.  This  consisted  in  a  chute,  over  the  bottom  of 
which  the  straw  was  drawn  with  a  web.  This  developed 
from  a  carrier  extending  directly  to  the  rear  to  an  inde- 


FIG.    162 — A   SECTIONAL  VIEW   OF  A   SELF-FEEDER 


pendent  swinging  stacker  and  the  attached  swinging 
stacker.  The  former  has  gone  out  of  use  entirely,  but 
the  attached  swinging  stacker  is  used  to  some  extent.  It 
has  some  advantages  over  the  wind  stacker  for  barn 
work. 

298.  The  wind  stacker  or  blower  has  displaced  the 
straw  carrier  to  a  large  extent  because  it  requires  a 
smaller  crew  to  operate.  The  wind  stacker  is  made  in 
many  types.  The  fan  drum  is  placed  horizontal,  inclined, 
or  vertical ;  the  straw  may  enter  the  fan  direct  or  into  the 


2l6 


FARM    MACHINERY 


blast  after  it  has  left  the  fan.  The  bevel  gears  by  which 
the  fan  is  often  driven  are  a  source  of  trouble  if  the  gears 
do  not  mesh  correctly  from  the  beginning.  They  have 
been  known  to  Avear  out  completely  in  a  few  days'  work. 
In  order  to  obviate  this  trouble,  the  stacker  drive  belt  is 
often  required  to  make  the  turn  over  two  pulleys  and 
drive  the  fan  direct.  This  method  also  gives  some 
trouble. 

The  wind  stacker  without  doubt  requires  more  power 
than  a  straw  carrier,  but  saves  labor.     It  is  impossible 


FIG.    163 — A   WIND  STACKER.      THE  FAN    DRUM    IS    NOT   SHOWN 


to  save  the  straw  as  well,  but  often  the  straw  is  con- 
sidered to  be  of  little  value. 

299.  The  weigher  is  an  attachment  by  which  the  threshed 
grain  is  weighed  and  measured  as  threshed.  It  is  a  very 
satisfactory  arrangement  to  have  on  a  machine  doing 
custom  work.  The  weigher  is  nearly  always  provided 
with  an  elevator  by  which  the  grain  is  elevated  into  the 
wagon  box.  To  do  the  elevating,  pans  or  buckets  pass- 
ing through  a  tube  are  used.  A  few  pneumatic  grain  ele- 
irators  have  been  used;  but  not  to  any  extent.    When  it 


THRESHING  MACHINERY 


217 


is  desired  to  place  the  grain  in  bags  a  bagger  attachment 
is  provided,  which  does  not  elevate  the  grain  as  high. 

300.  Size   and  capacity   of  threshing  machines. — The 
size  of  a  threshing  machine  is  indicated  by  the  width  or 


FIG.    164 — ^A    WEIGHER    AND   BAGGER 


length  of  the  cylinder  and  the  width  of  the  separator 
proper.     The  two  dimensions  in  inches  are  written  to- 


2l8  FARM    MACHINERY 

gether.  The  size  varies  from  i8  X  22  inches  to  44  X  66 
inches,  but  the  s^  X  54-inch  or  36  X  58-inch  are  the 
common  sizes.  The  ratio  between  the  width  of  cyHnder 
and  separator  varies  slightly  with  different  makes.  Steam 
traction  engines  are  now  generally  used  to  furnish  the 
power  for  the  larger  sizes,  although  gasoline  engines  are 
being  introduced  into  the  work.  A  36  X  58-inch  machine 
requires  a  15-  or  i6-horse-power  engine,  as  usually  rated. 
For  the  smaller  sizes,  horse  powers  and  portable  gasoline 
engines  are  generally  used.  The  amount  of  grain  threshed 
a  day  will  vary  very  much  with  the  conditions  of  the 
grain.  There  is  also  a  wide  variance  in  the  size  of  ma- 
chines, but  the  average-sized  steam-operated  outfit  will 
thresh  from  500  to  1,000  bushels  of  wheat  a  day  or  twice 
that  number  of  bushels  of  oats. 

301.  Selection. — The  selection  of  a  threshing  machine 
depends  upon  many  conditions,  among  which  may  be 
mentioned  the  kind  and  quantity  of  grain  to  be  threshed, 
the  amount  of  labor,  the  power,  and  the  condition  of  the 
bridges  in  the  locality.  There  has  been  a  gradual  in- 
crease in  the  size  of  threshing  outfits  for  some  time. 
These  large  machines  have  an  enormous  capacity  and  re- 
quire a  large  force  of  men  to  run  them.  However,  the 
small  machine  is  still  manufactured,  and  there  is  much 
argument  in  its  favor,  especially  so  since  the  introduction 
of  portable  gasoline  engines  of  a  size  to  operate  it. 
Steel  is  made  use  of  to  a  large  extent  in  the  manufacture 
of  separators,  and  no  doubt  will  prove  to  be  a  very 
durable  material  when  galvanized.  The  threshing  ma- 
chine deserves  good  care  on  the  part  of  the  owner.  It 
is  an  expensive  machine,  and  much  money  can  be  saved 
by  protecting  it  from  the  weather. 

302.  Bean  and  pea  threshers  differ  from  grain  threshers 
in  having  two  threshing  cylinders  operated  at  different 


THRESHING  MACHINERY 


219 


Speeds.  The  two  cylinders  are  necessary  owing  to  the 
fact  that  these  crops  can  never  be  cured  uniformly.  When 
the  pods  are  dry  the  seeds  are  readily  separated  from  the 
pods,  and  if  threshed  violently  the  seeds  will  split.  On  the 
other  hand,  when  the  pods  are  not  dry  the  seeds  cannot 
be  separated  readily  and  are  not  inclined  to  split.  Thus 
in  the  special  bean  thresher  the  vines  and  pods  are  fed 
through  a  cylinder  run  at  a  low  speed,  which  threshes  out 
the  dry  pods.  The  threshed  seeds  are  screened  out,  and 
the  remaining  material  passes  to  a  cylinder  run  at  a 
higher    speed    to    have    the    damp    and    greener    pods 


FIG.  165— 'SECTION  OF  A  PEA  AND  BEAN  THRESHER  WITH   TWO   CYLINDERS 

threshed.  The  bean  thresher  is  often  provided  with  a  re- 
cleaner  and  clod  crusher  to  remove  the  dirt.  The  size 
of  the  bean  and  pea  threshers  is  indicated  by  the  width 
of  cylinder  and  the  width  of  the  separator  or  machine 
proper.  Machines  are  usually  built  in  the  16  X  28-, 
26  X  44-,  and  36  X  44-inch  sizes.  The  larger  sizes  have 
a  capacity  up  to  100  bushels  of  clean  seed  an  hour. 

303.  Clover  hullers  resemble  threshing  machines  very 
much,  but  differ  in  being  provided  with  an  additional 
hulling  cylinder.  In  passing  the  threshing  cylinder  the 
heads  are  removed  from  the  stems  and  the  seed  from  the 
heads  to  some  extent.    The  heads  are  separated  from  the 


220  FARM    MACHINERY 

stems  and  chaff  and  passed  to  the  hulling  cylinder,  which 
removes  the  seed  from  the  pods.  The  construction  of 
hulling  cylinders  varies  from  a  cylinder  with  fluted  teeth 
and  a  wooden  cylinder  with  steel  brads  for  teeth  to  a 
cylinder  covered  with  hardened  steel  rasp  plates.  It  is 
necessary  in  all  cases  to  have  a  large  amount  of  surface 


FIG.  l66 — SECTION  OF  A  CLOVER  HULLER 

for  the  clover  to  come  in  contact  with.  Clover  hullers 
are  rated  according  to  the  size  of  the  hulling  cylinder, 
which  may  vary  from  28  to  42  inches.  The  large 
machines  are  driven  by  steam  power,  while  horse  power 
may  be  used  for  the  smaller.  They  may  be  provided 
with  wind  stackers,  self-feeders,  and  baggers  similar  to 
threshing  machines.  They  have  a  capacity  up  to  10  to  15 
bushels  of  cleaned  seed  an  hour. 


CHAPTER  XI 

CORN  MACHINERY 

Feed  and  Silage  Cutters 

304.  Development. — It  is  not  an  original,  neither  is  it 
a  novel  idea,  for  farmers  to  cut  dry  feed  for  their  stock. 
This  has  been  going  on  for  ages.  The  first  machine  for 
cutting  feed  was  simply  a  knife  for  hacking  it  up.  Later 
the  feed  was  placed  in  a  box,  allowing  the  ends  to  come 
over  a  cutter  head ;  then  a  knife  was  drawn  down  over 
this  head,  which  acted  in  the  manner  of  shears.  Possibly 
the  next  development  in  feed  cutters  was  to  fasten  a 
spiral  knife  to  a  shaft  in  such  a  manner  that  the  cutting 
might  be  done  by  a  continuous  rotary  motion.  Such  a 
cutter  was  invented  by  Mr.  Salmon  of  England  in  about 
1820,  and  by  a  Mr.  Eastman  in  the  United  States  in  1822. 
Another  type  of  machine  which  has  been  developed  is 
one  in  which  the  knives  are  fastened  to  the  spokes  of  a 
flywheel,  and  by  which  the  feed  is  chopped  by  being  fed 
into  the  wheel,  the  cutting  taking  place  over  the  end  of 
the  feeding  board. 

The  storage  of  green  and  partially  cured  succulent 
crops  in  a  silo  of  some  form  or  other  may  be  traced  to  the 
beginning  of  history,  but  it  has  been  recently  that  silos 
have  been  made  use  of  in  America.  In  1882  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture  could  find  only  99 
farmers  in  this  country  who  owned  silos.  A  silo  may  be 
found  on  nearly  every  dairy  farm  to-day,  and  it  is  con- 
sidered to  be  almost  an  essential.     The  silage  cutter  is 


222  FARM    MACHINERY 

simply  the  adaptation  of  the  cutter  for  dry  feed  to  the 
cutting  of  green  crops. 

305.  Cutter  heads. — Two  types  of  cutter  heads  are  to 
be  found  upon  the  market,  which  differ  in  the  shape  of 


FIG.     167 — AN    ENSILAGE    CUTTER    WITH     SELF-FEEDER    AND    PNEUMATIC 

ELEVATOR 

knives  used  and  the  direction  in  which  the  fodder  is  fed 
to  them.  The  radial  knife  is  fastened  directly  to  a  flywheel, 

which  may  also  carry  the  fan 
blades  for  the  stacker.  The 
advantage  of  this  type  lies  in 
the  fact  that  it  has  plenty  of 
clearance  and  the  chopped 
fodder  does  not  have  any  dif- 
ficulty in  getting  away  from 
the  cutting  head.  The  knives 
are  usually  set  at  an  angle  to 
give  a  "shear  cut."  To  this 
"°-  "^xxJ^^head"^""'      same    head    short   knives   or 


CORN    MACHINERY  22^^ 

teeth  called  splitters  may  be  attached  to  split  the  ends  of 
the  stalk  before  they  are  cut  off. 

The  second  type  of  cutter  head  is  the  one  which  carries 
a  spiral  knife.  The  cutting  edge  is  always  the  same  dis- 
tance from  the  shaft  (Fig.  169).  The  knife  may  be  pro- 
vided with  saw  teeth  for  handling  dry  feed  to  better 
advantage. 

306.  The  feeding  table  is  provided  on  the  larger  power 
machines  with  an  end- 
less apron  to  carry  the 
fodder  to  the  feed  rolls. 
The  speed  of  the  feed 
rolls  and  the  apron  is 
capable   of   adjustment    fig.  i6gH-A  spiral  knife  cutter  head 

for  various  rates  of  feed  and  coarseness  of  cutting. 

307.  Elevators  are  of  two  general  types:  double-chain 
conveyor  or  web-carrier  elevator,  and  the  pneumatic. 
The  carrier  elevator  is  satisfactory  except  for  very  high 
lifts.  The  long  v^ebs  are  a  source  of  trouble.  It  is  eco- 
nomical to  build  silos  high ;  hence  the  use  of  pneumatic 
or  wind  elevators.  It  is  necessary  to  keep  the  elevator 
pipe  almost  perpendicular,  or  the  silage  will  settle  to  one 
side  and  not  be  carried  up  by  the  air  blast. 

308..  Selection. — All  bearings,  especially  those  con- 
nected with  the  cutting  knives  and  feed  rollers,  should 
be  very  long.  The  shaft  should  be  strong,  and  the  gears 
heavy  enough  to  stand  a  variable  load.  It  is  well  to  have 
the  feed  rollers  so  arranged  that  should  more  feed  go  in 
one  side  than  on  the  other,  that  side  could  expand,  yet 
grip  the  feed  firmly.  Since  the  cutter  head  should  have 
a  capacity  of  from  600  to  1,000  revolutions  a  minute,  the 
frame  should  be  made  exceptionally  strong  and  stiff. 
Provision  should  be  made  so  the  bearings  cannot  wind, 
as  this  causes  much  more  friction  and  thus  will  require 


224 


FARM    MACHINERY 


much  more  power  than  necessary.  The  capacity  of  silage 
cutters  depends  upon  the  length  of  each  cut  and  upon  the 
length  of  the  knives,  as  well  as  the  condition  of  the  feed. 
In  general  a  silage  cutter  should  have  a  capacity  of  about 
one  ton  an  hour  for  each  horse  power  of  power  used. 

HUSKERS  AND   SHREDDERS 

309.  Construction. — The  husker  and  shredder  is  a  com- 
bined machine  to  convert  the  coarse  corn  fodder,  stalk 
and  leaves,  into  an  inviting  feed  for  farm  animals,  and 
at  the  same  time  deliver  the  corn  nicely  husked  to  the 
bin  or  the  wagon.  By  this  means  the  entire  corn  crop  is 
made  use  of  and  the  fodder  put  into  better  shape  for 
feeding. 

The  usual  arrangement  of  the  husker  and  shredder  is 
illustrated  in  Fig.  170.    The  fodder  is  first  placed  upon 


FIG.   170 — SECTIONAL  VIEW  OF  A  HUSKER  AND  SHREDDER 


the  feeding  table,  from  which  it  is  fed,  the  butts  first,  to 
the  feed  or  snapping  rolls.  Many  of  the  machines  are 
manufactured  with  self-feeders  much  like  those  for  the 
threshing  machine.  Owing  to  the  loss  of  hands  and 
arms  in  feeding  the  early  machines,  provision  is  now 


CORN   MACHINERY  22^ 

made  whereby  it  will  be  almost  impossible  for  accidents 
of  this  nature  to  happen. 

As  the  stalks  pass  through  the  snapping  rolls  the  ears 
are  squeezed  -off  and  allowed  to  fall  upon  a  conveyor, 
which  carries  them  to  the  husking  rolls,  or  they  may  fall 
upon  the  husking  rolls  direct.  Here  the  husks  are  pulled 
off  and  are  carried  to  the  wagon  or  bin.  When  the  stalks 
leave  the  snapping  rolls  they  pass  over  cutting  plates 
and  immediately  are  cut  into  small  particles  by  the 
shredding  head.  This  shredded  fodder  is  then  conveyed 
to  the  elevator,  which  may  be  either  a  carrier  or  pneu- 
matic stacker.  As  the  shredded  fodder  passes  through 
the  machine  it  passes  over  beaters,  which  agitate  the 
fodder  so  that  all  shelled  corn  falls  out  and  is  conveyed 
to  the  wagon. 

310.  The  snapping  rolls. — The  snapping  rolls  of  the 
shredder  may  either  be  made  corrugated,  chilled,  casting, 
or,  in  better  machines,  of  tool  steel,  or  they  may  be  made 
of  cast  iron  and  with  lugs  inserted.  The  latter  type 
seems  to  be  well  adapted  to  green  and  damp  corn.  The 
snapping  rolls  are  given  sufficient  pressure  by  springs  to 
grasp  the  stalks  firmly. 

311.  The  husking  rolls  rotate  together  in  pairs,  grasp- 
ing the  husk  and  tearing  it  away  from  the  ears.  There 
are  very  many  different  types  of  husking  rolls  on  the 
market.  The  most  common  type  seems  to  be  one  where 
the  rolls  are  set  parallel  to  each  other  in  pairs.  The  ends 
of  the  rolls  where  the  ear  first  strikes  are  higher  than  the 
ends  where  the  ear  leaves.  Sometimes  there  is  an  apron 
above  which  forces  the  ears  along  the  rolls.  The  devices 
for  catching  the  husks  are  simply  lugs  or  husking  pins 
set  in  the  rolls.  These  lugs  have  sharp-tempered  heads. 
The  husking  rolls  are  held  firmly  together  by  strong 
springs. 


226  FARM    MACHINERY 

312.  The  shredder  head  may  be  made  up  of  several 
plates  of  steel  of  the  rip-saw  type  tooth.  These  plates 
are  so  warped  or  bent  that  for  every  revolution  of  the 
head  only  two  teeth  should  pass  over  the  same  point  in 
the  stock.  The  teeth  should  be  offset  enough  to  cut  off 
a  fairly  good  slice.  In  some  shredders  there  are  no 
cutting  plates.  The  shredder  head  is  set  so  close  to  the 
snapping  rolls  that  as  the  stalks  come  through  it  tears 
them  to  pieces.  Some  machines  are  also  provided  with  a 
revolving  cutter  bar. 

Many  machines  have  an  interchangeable  shredder  and 
cutter  head.  By  using  the  cutter  head  the  same  machine 
may  be  used  in  cutting  straw  or  green  fodder  silage.  The 
shredder  head  is  also  made  for  some  machines  much  like 
a  thresher  cylinder,  except  the  teeth  are  shorter  and 
sharper. 

313.  Shelled  corn  separating  device. — One  of  the  essen- 
tial features  of  a  shredder  is  to  be  able  to  separate  all 
shelled  corn  from  the  shredded  fodder.  The  best  means 
for  this  is  to  have  some  form  of  beater  agitating  the 
shredded  product  in  the  air,  and  thereby  allowing  the 
shelled  corn  to  rattle  through.  The'  corn  then  falls 
through  a  sieve  and  is  conveyed  to  a  bagger  or  wagon 
elevator. 

314.  Size. — The  size  of  the  husker  and  shredder  is 
usually  denoted  by  the  number  of  husking  rolls,  as  a 
4-,  8-,  or  lo-roll  machine. 

315.  Capacity. — ^The  capacity  of  a  husker  and  shredder 
is  a  variable  quantity,  as  all  manufacturers  will  state.  It 
is  somewhat  difficult  to  reach  a  definite  basis  upon  which 
to  rate  capacity.  The  number  of  acres  a  day  or  the  num- 
ber of  bushels  a  day  will  not  state  accurately  the  amount 
of  work  performed.     In  general  it  may  be  safe  to  state 


CORN    MACHINERY  22*J 

that  the  8-roll  husker  and  shredder  will  handle  the  fodder 
from  8  to  15  acres  a  day  and  husk  from  25  to  80  bushels 
of  corn  an  hour. 

CORN  SHELLERS 

316.  Development. — The  earliest  device  used  in  the  shelling 
of  Indian  corn  or  maize  was  a  simple  iron  bar  placed  across  a 
box  and  over  which  the  ear  of  corn  was  rasped.  The  edge 
of  a  shovel  was  often  used  in  place  of  this  bar.  Another  early 
scheme  was  to  drive  the  ear  with  a  mallet  through  a  hole  just 
large  enough  to  let  the  cob  pass  through. 

Edmund  Burke,  Commissioner  of  Patents,  in  making  his  report 
for  the  year  1848,  states  that  two  patents  were  granted  on  corn 
shellers.  He  also  states:  "Corn  shellers  have  usually  been  con- 
structed in  one  of  three  modes.  In  the  first  the  shelling  is 
performed  on  the  periphery  of  a  cylinder;  in  the  second  it  is 
done  on  the  sides  (one  or  both)  of  a  wheel;  and  in  the  third 
it  is  done  by  forcing,  by  means  of  a  mallet  or  hammer,  the  cob, 
surrounded  by  the  corn,  through  a  hole  sufficiently  large  to 
admit  the  cob  only.  The  sides  of  this  hole  are  called  the 
strippers  and  are  often  arranged  in  radial  sectional  pieces  of 
four,  six,  or  eight  each,  acting  concentrically  against  the  corn 
or  cob  by  the  force  of  a  spring  or  substitute  behind. 

"To  this  last  kind  of  corn  sheller  there  have  been  raised 
several  objections,  the  most  prominent  of  which  is  that  in  the 
opening  of  the  radial  sections  by  stripping  the  corn  from  the 
cob  the  kernels  often  become  entangled  and  wedged  between 
the  radial  sections  and  prevent  some  one  or  more  of  the  sec- 
tional pieces  from  acting  upon  the  rows  of  corn  to  which  it 
may  be  opposite." 

Among  the  early  American  inventors,  Clinton  and  Burrall  are 
the  best  known.  The  Burrall  sheller  was  probably  most  popular. 
It  was  made  of  iron,  furnished  with  a  flywheel  to  equalize 
velocity,  and  was  worked  by  one  person  while  another  fed  it. 
It  discharged  the  corn  at  the  bottom  and  the  cob  at  the  end. 
Allen  Wayne  was  the  first  man  to  make  a  two-hole  sheller. 

317.  Types  of  the  modern  sheller. — There  are  two  gen- 
eral types  of  corn   sheller  to-day  outside  of  the  ware- 


22B 


FARM    MACHINERY 


house  sheller,  which  will  not  be  considered  here.     Only- 
portable  shellers  will  be  discussed.     One  will  be  called 

the  spring  sheller,  and  the  other 
is  the  well-known  cylinder 
sheller. 

318.  The  spring  sheller. — This 
term  may  not  be  generally  ac- 
cepted, although  it  is  a  name  ap- 
plied by  several  manufacturers 
to  the  sheller  whose  shelling 
mechanism  consists  in  picker 
wheels,  bevel  runners,  and  rag 
irons,  held  in  place  with  springs. 
This  type  of  sheller  is  illustrated 
in  Fig.  172.  It  is  also  called  the 
"picker"  type  of  sheller.  The 
parts  mentioned  which  come  in  contact  with  the  corn 


FIG.   171 — A  ONE-HOLE  HAND 
SHELLER 


FIG,    172 — SHELLING    MECHANISM    OF   THE    PICKER   OR    SPRING    SHELLER. 

A,  FEED  CHAIN  ;  B,   C,  BEATERS  ;    D,  F,  PICKER  WHEELS  ; 

E,   BEVEL  runner;    G,  RAG   IRON;   H,    SPRING 


CORN    MACHINERY 


229 


are  made  of  chilled  iron  and  are  very  hard.  The  tension 
on  the  rag-iron  springs  may  be  adjusted  and  should  be 
capable  of  individual  adjustment  when  necessary.  The 
most  important  advantage  of  the  spring  sheller  is  that  it 
leaves  a  whole  cob.  It  is  especially  desirable  to  have 
whole  cobs  where  they  are  used  for  fuel. 

319.  The  cylinder  sheller. — The  shelling  mechanism  of 
the  cylinder  sheller  is  shown  in  Fig.  173,  and  is  described 
by  the  manufacturer  as  follows:  *'The  shelling  cylinder 
is  made  of  heavy  rods  of  wrought  iron  placed  equidistant, 


FIG.    173 — SHELLING    MECHANISM    OF   CYLINDER    SHELLER 


presenting  a  corrugated  surface  which  cannot  wear 
smooth.  Within  this  a  revolving  iron  cylinder  with 
spiral  vanes  threshes  the  corn  against  the  surfaces  of  the 
rod  cylinder.  The  vanes  approach  the  rods  sufficiently 
close  to  keep  every  ear  in  rapid  motion,  shelling  one  ear 
or  one  bushel  with  the  same  facility.  A  regulator  at  the 
discharge  end  places  the  machine  within  control  of  the 
operator.  The  spaces  between  the  rods  allow  the  shelled 
corn  to  escape  freely,  thus  lessening  the  draft,  relieving 
the  cylinder  from  clogging  and  from  all  liability  to  cut  or 


230  FARM    MACHINERY 

grind  the  grain."    The  cylinders  are  made  adjustable  to 
suit  various  sizes  of  corn. 

320.  Self-feeder. — The  purpose  of  the  self-feeder  is  to 
carry  the  ears  to  the  shelling  mechanism.  The  spring 
shellers  are  provided  with  feeder  chains,  which  carry 
teeth  to  "end  up"  the  ears  and  carry  them  directly  to 
each  set  of  shelling  wheels,  or  to  each  **hole,"  as  it  is 


FIG.    174 — A    SIX-HOLE    POWER    SHELLER 

called.  The  cylinder  sheller  uses  a  double  chain  con- 
veyor with  slats  between,  as  it  is  not  necessary  to  end 
up  the  ears.  In  all  spring  shellers  provision  must  be 
made  for  forcing  the  ears  into  the  holes.  This  is  accom- 
plished by  adding  picker-feeding  wheels  or  a  beater. 

321.  Extension  feeders. — In  shelling  corn  from   large 
cribs,  extension  feeders  are  provided  to  circumvent  the 


CORN    MACHINERY  23I 

carrying  of  the  corn  by  hand.  These  are  provided  with 
double-chain  conveyors  and  may  be  had  in  sections,  mak- 
ing a  "drag  conveyor"  w^hich  may  be  extended  to  almost 
any  direction  from  the  main  feeder. 

322.  Separating  device. — ^To  separate  the  corn  and  the 
cobs,  the  whole,  after  passing  through  the  shelling 
mechanism,  is  made  to  pass  over  a  cob  rack  which  per- 
mits the  corn  and  chaff  to  pass  through.  The  cob  rack  is 
made  in  at  least  three  ways — a  vibrating  rack,  a  rod 
rack  with  rakes,  or  an  endless  rack  with  thumpers  under- 
neath. The  latter  two  have  advantage  in  lightness  and 
amount  of  power  required,  and  also  in  the  steadiness  by 
which  the  machine  may  be  operated. 

323.  Cleaning  device. — ^To  clean  the  corn  and  free  it 
from  chaff  and  husks  a  fan  is  provided  which  sends  its 
blast  through  some  form  of  sieve  or  rack.  The  corn  sieve 
may  be  dispensed  with  and  a  single  rack  used. 

324.  Grain  elevator. — The  grain  on  all  portable  ma- 
chines is  elevated  by  a  chain  cup  elevator  into  the  wagon 
box.  To  carry  the  corn  to  the  lower  end  of  the  elevator 
an  auger  is  universally  used. 

325.  Cob  carrier. — To  carry  the  cobs  from  the  sheller 
a  single-  or  double-chain  conveyor  is  used.  It  is  an  ad- 
vantage to  have  this  swing  from  the  sheller. 

326.  Dustless  sheller. — To  carry  the  chaff  and  husks 
away  from  the  sheller  an  auxiliary  fan  is  provided  on  the 
larger  machines  to  gather  and  discharge  the  dust  and 
chaff  at  one  point.  A  sheller  so  arranged  is  called  a  dust- 
less  sheller. 

327.  Shuck  sheller. — A  few  of  the  spring  shellers  are 
arranged  to  handle  partially  husked  corn,  and  many  of 
the  cylinder  shellers  are  so  arranged.  The  capacity  of 
the  machine  is  much  reduced  in  handling  snapped  or  un- 
husked  corn. 


232  FARM    MACHINERY 

328.  Power. — The  power  required  for  a  four-hole 
spring  sheller  is  usually  about  eight  horse.  The  six-hole 
machine  requires  about  10  and  the  eight-hole  12  to  14 
horse  power.  The  power  required  for  cylinder  shellers 
varies  with  the  style  and  manufacturer's  number. 

329.  Capacity. — The  capacity  of  the  spring  sheller  is 
determined  by  its  size,  which  is  denoted  by  the  number 
of  holes,  which  vary  from  the  one-hole  hand-power  ma- 
chine to  the  large  eight-hole  power  sheller.  A  four-hole 
sheller  is  usually  rated  at  100  to  200  bushels  an  hour,  the 
six-hole  at  200  to  300,  and  the  eight-hole  at  300  to  600 
bushels  an  hour.  The  size  of  the  cylinder  sheller  is  de- 
noted by  the  manufacturer's  number  only.  Cylinder 
shellers  have  a  large  capacity  ranging  up  to  800  bushels 
an  hour  for  the  largest  sizes. 

330.  Selection  of  a  sheller. — The  following  are  the 
requisites  for  a  good  portable  corn  sheller.  First  and 
probably  the  most  important  feature  to  look  to  is  the 
frame.  This  should  be  made  very  strong.  It  should  be 
mortised  and  tenoned  and  secured  together  by  means  of 
rods  or  bolts.  The  wood  should  be  either  of  ash  or  oak. 
The  bearings  for  all  parts  where  there  is  considerable 
power  placed  upon  them  should  be  long,  well  secured 
to  the  frame,  and,  where  possible,  made  dust  proof.  They 
should  also  be  supplied  with  plugs  or  oil  cups  to  keep 
all  grit  and  dust  from  entering.  The  feeding  shaft  should 
be  strong,  and  the  lugs  should  be  of  chilled  cast  iron  or 
cast  steel.  The  feeder  box  should  be  supplied  with  agi- 
tators to  prevent  the  corn  piling  up  at  the  lower  end  and 
thus  allowing  the  sheller  to  run  partially  empty.  For 
large  job  work  the  machine  should  be  provided  with  a 
drag  carrier  of  length  from  about  10  to  20  feet.  Where 
the  cribs  are  extra  long  it  is  well  to  have  two  sections  of 
about  this  length.     The   rag  irons   should  be  separate 


CORN    MACHINERY 


233 


as  well  as  a  combined  adjustment.  The  sheller  should 
be  so  constructed  that  it  will  not  injure  it  to  throw 
the  feeder  box  and  the  feeder  bar  into  operation  while 
running.  On  either  side  of  the  sheller  there  should  be 
an  attachment  for  a  grain  elevator.  The  mechanism 
for  receiving  the  power  should  be  so  constructed  that  the 
power,  if  necessary,  can  be  applied  upon  either  side.  The 
cob  carrier  should  be  of  the  swing  type  with  long  enough 
lugs  on  the  chain  and  velocity  enough  to  convey  the  cobs 
away  without  allowing  them  to  choke  at  the  base.  In 
the  sheller  there  should  be  plenty  of  surface  for  the  cobs 
to  pass  over  so  the  corn  can  all  separate  from  them. 

In  selecting  a  corn  sheller  and  making  the  first  trial, 
do  not  condemn  the  machine  if  it  requires  a  large  amount 
of  power  to  run  it.  Possibly  the  fault  is  not  in  the  sheller, 
but  is  in  the  condition  of  the  corn.  Corn  which  is  green 
or  damp  requires  very  nearly,  if  not  altogether,  twice  the 
power  to  shell  it  that  dry  corn  requires. 


CHAPTER  XII 
FEED  MILLS 

331.  Development. — The  mill  was  one  of  the  first  in- 
ventions of  man.  Feeding  of  cracked  or  broken  grain  to 
domestic  animals  has  been  practiced  for  many  years; 
however,  the  practice  did  not  become  general  until  the 
introduction  of  the  portable  mill.  The  first  mills  were 
equipped  with  stone  buhrs,  but  metallic  plates  were  made 
use  of  at  a  very  early  date,  for  they  have  been  mentioned 
in  history.  A  description  of  a  French  mill  using  metallic 
buhrs  is  at  hand  which  was  used  to  grind  grain  for  the 
soldiers  in  the  army  of  Napoleon  I. 

332.  Buhrs  and  plates. — The  grinding  depends  largely 
upon  the  buhrs  or  plates.  They  are  the  parts  which  do 
the  actual  grinding;  receiving  the  whole  grain,  they 
gradually  reduce  it  to  a  meal. 

The  stone  buhr  is  used  to  some  extent  to-day  where  a 
fine  meal  is  desired.  The  meal  from  stone  buhrs  may  be 
used  for  human  food.  Buhr  stones  must  have  a  cellular 
structure  to  prevent  them  from  taking  on  a  polish  and 
give  them  a  better  grip  for  grinding.  The  buhr  stone 
must  also  be  very  tough.  The  best  are  imported  and  are 
known  as  French  buhrs.  Good  buhr  stones  are  quarried 
at  Esopus,  New  York,  and  practically  all  of  the  buhr 
stones  used  in  the  United  States  come  from  this  place. 
The  buhr  stone  usually  has  a  wrought-iron  band  shrunk 
over  it  to  strengthen  it.  It  must  be  sharpened  with  a 
chisel  when  worn,  hence  it  is  not  popular  for  small  farms. 

Metallic  buhrs. — Nearly  all  of  the  plates  used  on  farm 


FEED    MILLS  235 

mills  or  grinders  are  made  of  chilled  iron,  though  tool 
steel  and  bronze  are  used  to  some  extent. 

Chilled  iron  plates  or  buhrs  vary  in  shape,  the  usual 
form  being  two  flat  disks  which  are  provided  with  ribs 
or  corrugations  to  carry  the  grain  to  the  outer  edge  be- 
tween the  milling  surfaces  (Fig.  175).  The  cone  buhr  is 
the  result  of  an  attempt  to  increase  capacity  by  increas- 
ing the  surface. 

The  steel  buhr  is  made  in  the  shape  of  a  roller  with  a 
milled  surface.    The  roller  mills  as  used  in  flouring  mills 


FIG.     175 — CHILLED    IRON     BUHRS 

are  not  used  in  preparing  feed  for  stock  to  any  extent. 
It  is  stated  that  the  steel  buhr  has  a  large  capacity,  but 
will  fill  or  clog  when  damp  grain  is  being  ground. 

The  duplex  buhr  has  two  grinding  surfaces.  The  mov- 
ing plate  moves  between  two  stationary  plates  (Fig.  178). 

In  order  to  grind  ear  corn  a  crusher  is  often  provided  to 
reduce  the  ears  to  pieces  small  enough  to  be  fed  to  the 
buhrs.  In  sweep  mills  the  crushing  teeth  are  made  a 
part  of  the  main  buhrs. 

333'  Sweep  mills. — The  simple  sweep  mill  consists  of 
two  conical  buhrs.     The  inner  one  remains  stationary, 


236 


FARM    MACHINERY 


while  the  outer  is  rotated  by  a  sweep.  Nearly  all  sweep 
mills  are  arranged  to  grind  ear  corn.  Fig.  177  illustrates 
a  common  type  of  the  sweep  mill.     In  order  to  increase 


FIG.    176 — BUHRS   FOR   A    SWEEP   MILL 

the  capacity  of  the  mill  one  of  the  buhrs  is  geared  up 
until  it  makes  3,  or  even  9  to  11,  revolutions  for  each 
round  of  the  team. 


r 


FIG.    177 — A    SWEEP   MILL 


334.  The  hitch. — The  usual  arrangement  with  the  sim- 
ple sweep  mill  is  to  hitch  the  team  to  the  end  of  the 
single  sweep.    Some  makers  arrange  to  hitch  the  horses 


FEED    MILLS  237 

tandem,  the  claim  being  that  the  work  is  more  evenly 
divided  between  them,  as  they  work  upon  an  equalizer 
and  each  horse  travels  in  the  same  circle. 

With  triple-geared  or  higher-geared  sweep  mills  the 
capacity  for  grinding  is  so  great  that  two  horses  are  not 
sufficient  to  furnish  the  power;  more  horses  must  be 
added.  The  horses  may  be  hitched  in  teams  to  sweeps 
opposite  each  other  with  an  equalizer  across  or  placed  in 
tandem,  as  referred  to. 

335.  Combination  mills,  or  mills  in  combination  with  a 
small  sweep  power,  are  manufactured  to  enable  the 
owner  to  drive  other  machinery  such  as  a  corn  sheller. 
Such  a  mill  is  confined  to  the  geared  sweep  type. 

POWER  MILLS 

336.  Power  mills  are  operated  by  belt  or  tumbling  rod. 
Following  is  a  discussion  of  the  important  parts  of  power 
mills. 

A  balance  wheel  is  sometimes  placed  upon  a  mill  to 
prevent  the  mill  from  choking  due  to  an  extra  demand 
for  power  which  will  occur  at  times.  The  balance  wheel 
is  considered  a  good  thing  to  have  on  a  mill. 

Divided  hopper. — It  is  often  desired  to  grind  at  least 
two  kinds  of  grain  at  a  time.  To  accomplish  this  a 
divided  hopper  is  provided. 

Safety  device. — It  often  occurs  that  some  hard  sub- 
stance, as  a  nail  or  a  nut,  becomes  mixed  in  the  grain  and 
is  placed  in  the  mill.  The  safety  device  is  a  wooden 
break  pin  or  spring  catch,  which  permits  the  buhrs  to 
open  without  damaging  the  mill. 

The  quick  release  is  for  the  same  purpose  as  the  safety 
device,  but  is  operated  by  hand.  By  its  use  the  machine 
may  be  prevented  from  clogging  when  heavily  loaded 
for  any  reason. 


238 


FARM    MACHINERY 


337.  Sacking  elevators. — When  desired,  all  larger  ma- 
chines may  be  obtained  with  a  sacking  elevator,  provided 
with  a  divided  spout,  to  which  two  sacks  may  be  attached 
at  a  time.  While  one  sack  is  filling,  the  other  may  be 
removed  and  an  empty  sack  adjusted  in  its  place. 

338.  The  selection  of  a  feed  mill. — Feed  mills  for  farm 
purposes  should  have  their  frames  constructed  of  cast 


FIG.    178 — A  SECTIONAL  VIEW  OF  A   POWER  MILL  WITH  DUPLEX  BUHRS  AND 
CRUSHING  KNIVES 

iron,  in  such  a  way  that  there  is  no  binding  in  the  bearings 
and  all  bearings  may  be  well  protected  from  the  dust. 
The  buhrs  should  have  a  device  to  release  them  when 
some  foreign  substance,  such  as  stones,  nails,  nuts, 
etc.,  enters  the  mills.  Besides  this  safety  device  there 
must  be  another  which  is  handy  and  will  regulate  the 


FEED    MILLS  239 

buhrs  in  a  manner  so  they  may  be  opened  or  closed 
according  to  the  fineness  to  which  the  grain  is  to  be 
ground.  The  buhrs  should  be  attached  to  the  shaft  or 
mill  in  such  a  manner  that  they  will  not  wobble  and  thus 
rub  against  each  other  under  any  condition  whatever. 
This  device  should  also  be  made  substantial  enough  and 
accurate  enough  so  the  buhrs  can  be  adjusted  to  almost 
any  fineness  and  not  interfere  with  each  other.  In  a  corn 
and  cob  grinder  which  is  driven  by  a  belt  or  tumbling 
rod,  the  hopper  should  be  divided  and  should  have  a  feed 
regulator  so  the  ear  corn  and  fine  grain  may  be  regulated 
as  desired.  There  should  also  be  a  regulating  device  be- 
tween the  crushing  cylinder  and  grinding  buhrs.  This 
is  quite  often  efifected  by  means  of  a  lever  and  vibrating 
shutter,  the  former  receiving  its  motion  from  the  main 
shaft  of  the  mill. 

339.  Alfalfa  mills  are  used  in  reducing  alfalfa  hay  to 
meal  suitable  for  poultry  and  other  stock.  The  mill  has 
a  cutter  which  cuts  the  hay  into  short  lengths  before 
passing  to  the  buhrs.  Alfalfa  may  be  ground  in  the  corn 
mill  if  the  hay  is  passed  through  a  hay  cutter  first.  To 
grind  successfully,  alfalfa  hay  should  be  very  dry.  The 
capacity  of  alfalfa  mills  varies  from  50  to  100  pounds  of 
ground  alfalfa  an  hour  for  each  horse  power  used. 

340.  Capacity  of  feed  mills. — ^The  amount  of  feed 
ground  an  hour  depends  largely  upon  the  degree  of  fine- 
ness of  the  ground  meal  and  the  condition  of  the  grain  as 
to  moisture.  It  is  to  be  expected  that  a  mill  with  new 
sharp  buhrs  will  have  a  much  larger  capacity  than  a  mill 
with  worn  buhrs.  Where  a  good  quality  of  meal  is  pro- 
duced a  mill  should  be  expected  to  grind  at  least  four  to 
five  bushels  of  corn,  or  two  to  three  bushels  of  oats  an 
hour  for  each  horse  power  used.  Grinding  ear  corn  the 
capacity  will  be  one-third  less. 


240  FARM    MACHINERY 

341.  Corn  crushers.-^It  is  within  only  the  past  three 
or  four  years  that  the  value  of  crushed  corn  has  become 
generally  known  to  the  cattle  feeders.  One  principal 
reason  for  this  is  that  in  crushing  corn  the  crushers  may 
be  so  arranged  that  the  husks  may  be  chopped  with  the 
ear.  By  this  means  the  feeder  is  enabled  to  give  his  cat- 
tle snapped  corn  which  is  broken  or  crushed  fine  enough 
so  it  is  practically  a  coarse  shelled  corn  mixed  with 
ground  cob  and  husks.  One  great  advantage  derived 
from  such  a  scheme  is  that  the  crushing  of  the  corn  can 
be  done  very  cheaply,  it  requiring  only  two  or  three 
horse  power  to  crush  40  or  50  bushels  an  hour.  Several 
feed  grinders  for  grinding  corn  and  cob  are  provided  with 
a  separate  crusher  and  it  is  a  question  if  this  is  not  the 
most  profitable  means  of  grinding  the*corn  and  cob. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
WAGONS,  BUGGIES,  AND   SLEDS 

342.  Development. — Carts  and  wagons  were  used  at 
a  very  early  date,  for  in  the  Book  of  Genesis  we  find  that 
when  Pharaoh  advanced  Joseph  to  the  second  place,  "he 
made  him  to  ride  in  the  second  chariot  he  had."  The 
chariot  is  only  a  form  of  cart.  Later  in  Joseph's  time  we 
find  that  he  sent  wagons  out  of  the  land  of  Egypt  to 
convey  Jacob  and  his  whole  family  to  the  land  of  his 
adoption.  Not  only  did  they  have  wagons  and  chariots 
at  a  very  early  date,  but  they  were  of  similar  construction 
to  those  of  the  present,  for  in  the  Book  of  Kings  we  read, 
"And  the  work  of  the  wheels  was  like  the  work  of  a 
chariot  wheel ;  their  axletrees,  and  their  naves,  and  their 
felloes,  and  their  spokes  were  all  molten."  It  is  not 
known  just  when  wheels  were  first  bound  with  tires  of 
iron,  a  practice  which  is  of  the  greatest  importance  in  the 
construction  of  the  wheel.  Wooden  wheels  without  tires 
have  been  used  in  some  countries  until  quite  recently,  and 
good  authority  states  that  they  have  a  limited  use  to-day. 

The  use  of  carriages  for  general  purposes  began  in  the 
eighteenth  century,  though  steel  springs  were  intro- 
duced as  early  as  the  fourteenth.  In  1804  Obadiah  El- 
liott invented  the  elliptical  spring.  It  was  early  in  the 
nineteenth  century  that  the  greatest  development  took 
place.  During  this  period  Telford  and  Macadam  were 
able  to  establish  a  system  of  good  roads  in  England. 

Carts  for  the  hauling  of  loads  are  used  to  some  extent 
in  European  countries  and  to  a  very  limited  extent  in  the 


242 


FARM    MACHINERY 


United  States.  Their  use  in  the  Middk  West,  however, 
is  very  rare.  The  general  use  of  teams  and  the  advan- 
tages of  the  wagon  for  larger  loads  are  responsible  for 
this. 

WAGONS 

The  essential  features  of  a  farm  wagon  are  durability, 
convenience,  lightness  of  weight  and  draft.     These  feat- 


FIG.    179 — A    MEXICAN    CART   OF    1865.      IMPORTED    IN    1883    BY    MESSRS. 

SCHUTTLER  AND  HUTZ  OF  CHICAGO,  AND  DONATED  LATER  TO  THE 

SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,     WASHINGTON,   D.  C. 


ures  depend  upon  the  material,  workmanship,  and  con- 
struction used  in  building  the  wagon. 

343.  Material. — Perhaps  there  is  no  service  to  which 
material  may  be  placed  which  is  as  exacting  and  as  severe 


FIG.    t80 A    MODERN   FARM    WAGON   WITH   BOX    BRAKE 


WAGONS,  BUGGIES,  AND  SLEDS  243 

as  that  required  of  material  used  in  the  construction  of 
wagons  and  buggies.  All  wood  should  be  carefully  se- 
lected and  thoroughly  dried  both  in  air  and  in  kiln. 
Well-seasoned  black  birch  is  probably  best  for  hubs; 
best-seasoned  white  oak  for  spokes,  felloes,  bolsters, 
sandboards,  and  hounds ;  hickory  is  preferable  for  axles, 


FIG.    181 — A   SECTION    OF   A   WAGON    HUB    SHOWING   THREE   METHODS   OF 

FORMING   THE   SPOKE    SHOULDERS.       THE   ROUND    SHOULDERS    ARE 

SAID  TO   BE   MUCH    STRONGER   AND   MORE   DURABLE 


although  the  best  straight-grained  white  oak  is  good.  All 
metal  parts  should  be  of  good  Norway  iron  or  mild  steel. 
344.  Wheels. — All  wooden  wheels  should  be  dished  or 
the  outer  face  of  the  wheel  should  present  a  concave  sur- 
face. The  dish  in  the  wheel  makes  it  much  stronger, 
which  may  be  illustrated  with  a  paper  disk  and  a  paper 
cone.  The  cone  is  much  stififer.  For  front  wheels  this 
dish  should  be  from  }i  inch  to  %  inch,  and  for  rear 
wheels  from  ^  to  ^  inch.  At  one  time,  wheels  were 
given  much  more  dish  than  at  present.  An  English 
writer  states  that  cart  wheels  should  be  dished  as  much 
as  3  inches.     By  giving  the  wheels  an  excessive  amount 


244 


FARM    MACHINERY 


of  dish,  the  cart  bed  may  be  made  much  wider.  It  does 
not  matter  greatly  whether  the  felloes  are  bent  or  sawed, 
as  the  merits  of  the  two  methods  are  about  equal.  A 
rivet  should  be  placed  on  the  side  of  each  spoke  to  pre- 
vent splitting.  The  felloes  should  be  well  doweled  and 
the  tire  bolted  to  them.  The  standard  height  of  wheels 
for  a  farm  wagon  with  3-inch  skein  or  over  is  3  feet  8 
inches  for  the  front  wheels,  and  4  feet  6  inches  for  the 
rear    wheels.      Smaller    wagons    have    wheels    of    less 


FIG.  182— THE  UPPER  IS  THE  CAST;  THE  LOWER,  THE  STEEL  WAGON  SKEIN 


height.  There  is  a  tendency  to  use  wheels  of  smaller 
diameter  when  wide  tires  are  used.  The  thickness  of 
the  tire  varies  from  ^  inch  to  ^  inch. 

345.  The  axles  should  have  as  few  holes  in  them  as 
possible.  Clips  can  nearly  always  be  used  instead  of 
bolts  excepting  for  the  king  bolt.  A  well-secured  truss 
rod  should  be  placed  beneath  each  axle,  and  it  is  better 
if  it  is  secured  to  the  skeins. 

The  skein  may  be  of  either  cast  iron  or  steel.  In  level 
countries  the  former  is  preferable,  while  among  the  hills 
and  mountains  the  latter  with  a  long  sleeve  is  probably 
more  serviceable.     Skeins  should  have  a  large  throat  to 


WAGONS,  BUGGIES,  AND  SLEDS  245 

take  in  all  the  wood  possible,  since  this  is  the  weakest 
point  in  the  axle.  They  should  gradually  taper  towards 
the  nut  so  they  can  be  forced  on  perfectly  tight  and  not 
have  to  be  bolted,  as  this  weakens  the  axle. 

346.  Gather. — In  setting  the  skeins  the  under  side 
should  be  nearly  parallel  with  the  ground  and  the  center 
of  the  nut  end  should  be  a  trifle  farther  forward  than  the 
shoulder.  The  former  is  called  bottom  gather  and  the 
latter  front  gather.  This  is  so  that  the  wheel  will  not 
have  a  tendency  to  run  towards  the  nut,  to  overcome  the 
inclination  of  the  dish  of  the  wheel  and  keep  the  box  rub- 
bing against  the  collar  of  the  skein.  If  the  front  edges 
of  the  felloes  are  V2  inch  closer  together  than  the  back, 
it  is  sufficient. 

347.  Tire  setting  is  possibly  the  most  important  part  of 
wagon  making,  since  the  wheels  invariably  give  out  long 
before  any  other  part.  In  purchasing  a  new  wagon,  it  is 
difficult  to  tell  whether  the  tires  are  properly  set.  How- 
ever, always  avoid  buying  wheels  that  have  more  or  less 
dish  than  stated  above.  When  having  tires  reset,  see 
that  the  smith  cuts  enough  out  of  the  felloe  to  allow  it 
to  draw  up  snugly  on  to  the  spokes  and  force  the  spokes 
into  the  hub  perfectly.  Do  not  allow  him  to  cut  out  so 
much  that  when  the  felloe  is  drawn  together  the  wheel  is 
dished  more  than  stated  above.  Should  he  not  cut  out 
enough  of  the  felloe  to  accomplish  the  tightness  just 
stated  the  wheel  will  be  known  as  felloe  bound  and  it 
will  be  only  a  short  time  until  the  spokes  will  rattle  in 
the  rim  or  squeak  at  the  hub. 

348.  The  reach  in  itself  is  not  such  an  important  part, 
as  any  person  can  soon  supply  a  new  one.  However,  the 
way  it  is  connected  to  the  front  axle  and  passes  through 
the  rear  is  very  vital,  since  it  will  soon  chafe  in  these 
places  and  eventually  ruin  the  gears.     See  that  there  is 


246  FARM    MACHINERY 

a  plate  on  the  under  side  of  the  sandboard  and  on  top 
of  the  front  axle,  also  see  that  there  is  a  metal  sleeve  for 
the  reach  to  pass  through  between  the  rear  axle  and  bol- 
ster. 

349.  Tongue,  neckyoke  and  whiffletrees  are  all  essen- 
tial, but  not  so  important  in  their  construction.  They 
should  all  be  made  of  the  best  selected  oak  except  the 
doubletrees,  which  should  be  of  hickory.  Wherever 
there  is  any  wear  there  should  be  metal  plates  or  collars. 
It  is  well  that  the  tongue  be  reenforced  by  an  iron  strip 
beneath  and  that  the  pole  cap  have  an  extra  kink  in  front 
of  the  neckyoke  lock  to  prevent  the  neckyoke  from  slip- 
ping off. 

350.  Other  parts. — The  same  may  be  said  of  sand- 
boards  and  bolsters  as  of  axles.  Between  sandboard  and 
bolster  there  should  be  a  cup  and  cone  plate  with  flanges 
which  extend  over  the  sides  to  prevent  splitting.  On  top 
of  each  bolster  there  should  be  a  plate  of  metal.  The 
king  bolt  should  have  a  large,  flat  head  to  prevent  cut- 
ting into  the  bolster. 

It  does  not  matter  so  much  as  to  the  length  and  shape 
of  the  hounds,  as  it  does  to  their  bracing  and  fastening  to 
the  axles.  Therefore  see  that  they  are  well  braced  and 
so  securely  fastened  that  they  will  not  work  loose  and 
soon  wear  at  that  point. 

351.  Wide  and  narrow  track. — Two  widths  of  tracks 
are  in  general  use  in  the  United  States.  The  narrow 
track  measures  4  feet  6  inches  center  to  center  of  tires  on 
the  ground.  The  wide  track  is  5  feet  measured  in  the 
same  way.  Although  the  use  of  each  track  is  confined  to 
certain  sections,  it  results  in  much  inconvenience  at  the 
borders  of  the  districts  where  both  styles  are  used. 
It  is  necessary  to  specify  the  width  of  track  when  pur- 
chasing a  vehicle  of  any  sort. 


WAGONS^  BUGGIES,  AND  SLEDS  247 

352.  The  box. — The  wagon  independent  of  the  box  is 
often  spoken  of  as  the  gear.  The  box,  or  what  is  some- 
times called  the  bed,  may  be  removed  and  a  hay  rack  or 
the  gear  may  be  used  independently  for  the  hauling  of 
logs  or  lumber.  The  box  of  a  narrow-track  farm  wagon 
is  found  to  be  the  most  convenient  when  it  is  3  feet  wide 
and  10  feet  long  inside,  and  made  up  of  three  sections,  14, 
12,  10  inches  deep.  The  second  is  spoken  of  as  the  top 
box  and  the  third  as  the  tiptop  box.  A  box  of  the  above 
dimensions  will  hold  approximately  two  bushels  for  each 
inch  in  depth.  A  box  of  this  size  requires  3  feet  2  inches 
between  the  standards  on  the  bolster,  and  is  lo  feet  6 
inches  long  outside.  The  sides  of  the  box  should  be  of 
the  best  selected  yellow  poplar  and  the  bottom  of  3-inch 
quarter-sawed  yellow  pine  flooring  with  oak  strips  on  the 
under  side.  A  metal  plate  should  be  riveted  on  where 
the  bolster  rubs,  and  a  rub  iron  of  good  design  and  se- 
cure attachment  should  be  placed  where  the  front  wheel 
rubs.  A  device  should  be  provided  to  hold  the  box  sec- 
tions securely  together. 

353.  Brakes. — Wagon  brakes  are  required  in  hilly  lo- 
calities. Two  general  types  of  wagon  brakes  are  in  use, 
the  box  brake  or  the  brake  attached  to  the  wagon  box, 
and  the  gear  brake,  attached  to  gear  independent  of  the 
box,  except  that  a  lever  attached  to  it  is  provided  to  be 
used  when  the  box  is  used.  The  gear  brake  has  two  ad- 
vantages in  that  it  does  not  weaken  or  injure  the  box  in 
any  way,  when  used,  and  it  may  be  used  when  the  gear  is 
used  without  the  box.  The  box  brake  has  a  tendency  to 
chatter  and  loosen  the  floor  of  the  box. 

354.  Painting. — All  of  the  wooden  parts  of  the  gears 
should  be  boiled  in  linseed  oil  and  then  one  coat  of  paint 
applied  before  the  ironing  is  done.  The  former  process 
drives  all  moisture  from  the  wood  and  fills  the  pores  so 


248 


FARM    MACHINERY 


thfe  paint  adheres  well;  the  latter  keeps  moisture  from 
entering,  thus  preventing  the  wood  from  rotting  under 
the  iron.  After  ironing,  two  more  coats  of  red  lead 
paint  should  be  added,  then  stripes,  and  finally  a  coat  of 
wagon  varnish.  The  box  should  be  sandpapered,  then 
painted  with  three  coats  of  good  pigment,  after  which  it 
is  striped  and  varnished. 

355-  Capacity. — As  a  wagon  is  subjected  to  shocks,  it 
must  be  designed  to  carry  many  times  any  load  which 
may  be  placed  upon  it.  The  following  table  is  the  aver- 
age capacity  of  wagons  as  furnished  by  several  manu- 
facturers : 


Wagon! 

3  with  Skeins 

With  St« 

2el  Axles 

Size  of  Skein 

Capacity 

Size  of  Axle 

Capacity 

2% 

800 

ItV 

600 

2% 

1,000 

IH 

800 

2H 

1,200 

m 

1,200 

2V2 

1,600 

IH 

1,600 

2Va 

2,000 

IH 

2,250 

3 

3,000 

IH 

3,000 

zVa 

4,000 

IM 

4,000 

3^ 

5,500 

2 

5,000 

2,Va 

6,500 

254 

6,500 

4 

8,500 

2^ 

9,000 

aVa 

10,000 

3 

15,000 

AV2 

12,000 

356.  Draft  of  wagon. — The  draft  of  a  wagon  is  the 
resistance  encountered  in  moving  the  wagon  with  its 
load.  It  is  often  called  tractive  resistance,  and  is  worthy 
of  careful  consideration,  for  a  reduction  in  the  draft  of 
wagons  not  only  means  increased  efficiency  on  the  part 
of  the  draft  animals,  but  also  a  reduction  in  the  cost  of 
transportation.  The  draft  of  wagons  is  made  up  of  three 
elements :  (a)  axle  friction,  {h)  rolling-  resistance^  and  (c) 
grade  resistance. 


WAGONS,  BUGGIES,  AND  SLEDS 


249 


357.  Axle  friction  is  the  resistance  of  the  wheel  turn- 
ing about  its  axle  similar  to  the  resistance  of  a  journal 
turning  in  its  bearing,  independent  of  the  other  elements 
of  draft.  Axle  friction  is  usually  a  small  part  of  the  total 
draft.  The  power  required  to  overcome  it  diminishes 
as  the  ratio  between  the  diameters  of  the  wheel  and  axle 
increases.  Thus  in  Fig.  183  if  R  be  the  radius  of  the 
wheel,  r  the  radius  of  the  axle,  from  the  principle  of  the 
wheel  and  axle — 

Power   :  Axle  friction   :   :  r  :  R 

T,  Axle  friction 

Power  = — 

R/r 

In  the  standard  farm  wagon  R/r  has  a  value  of  from  1 1 
to  20,  or  an  average  of  about  15. 

Morin  found  in  his  experiments,  which  have  been  con- 
sidered a  standard  for 
years,  that  with  cast-iron 
axles  in  cast-iron  bearings 
lubricated  with  lard,  oil  of 
olives  or  tallow  gave  a  co- 
efficient of  friction  of  0.07 
to  0.08  when  the  lubrica- 
tion was  renewed  in  the 
usual  way.  Assuming  0.08 
to  be  the  coefficient  of  fric- 
tion and  15  to  be  the  ratio 
between  wheel  and  axle 
diameters,  the  force  re- 
quired per  ton  to  overcome  friction  would  be  between 
10  and  II  pounds.  Another  authority*  states  that  the 
tractive  power  required  to  overcome  axle  friction  in  a 
truck  wagon  which  has  medium-sized  wheels  and  axles  is 
about  33/2  to  43/2  pounds  a  ton.    The  use  of  ball  and  roller 

*L  O.  Baker,  "Roads  and  Pavements." 


250  FARM    MACHINERY 

bearings  would  tend  to  reduce  the  axle  friction  and  man- 
ufacturers trying  to  introduce  these  bearings  claim  a 
great  reduction  in  draft.  No  doubt  there  are  other  ad- 
vantages in  the  use  of  ball  and  roller  bearings  beside  a 
reduction  in  draft.  It  is  not  thought  that  the  dished 
wheel  and  bent  axle  are  of  a  construction  that  tends  to 
reduce  axle  friction  to  a  minimum.  It  is  hoped  that  ex- 
periments will  be  conducted  at  an  early  date  to  deter- 
mine accurately  the  axle  friction  of  wagons. 

358.  Rolling  resistance. — Rolling  resistance  corre- 
sponds to  rolling  friction  in  that  it  is  due  to  the  indenta- 
tion or  cutting  of  the  wheel  into  the  road  surface,  which 
really  causes  the  wheel  to  be  rolling  up  an  inclination  or 
grade.  The  softer  the  road  bed  the  farther  the  wheel 
will  sink  into  it,  and  hence  the  steeper  the  inclination.  The 
height  of  wheel  influences  the  rolling  resistance  in  that 
a  wheel  of  large  diameter  will  pass  over  an  obstruction 
with  less  power,  as  the  time  in  which  the  load  is  lifted  is 
lengthened.  There  is  also  a  less  tendency  upon  the  part 
of  a  large  wheel  to  cut  into  the  surface,  due  to  the  larger 
area  presented  at  the  bottom  of  the  wheel  to  carry  the 
load.  Elaborate  experiments  have  been  conducted  by 
T.  I.  Mairs,  of  the  Missouri  experiment  station,  in  re- 
gard to  the  influence  of  height  of  wheel  upon  draft  of 
wagons.  Three  sets  of  wheels  were  used  with  six-inch 
tires  and  a  net  load  of  2,000  pounds  was  used  in  all  cases. 
The  total  load  for  the  high  wheels  was  3,762  pounds, 
for  the  medium  wheels  3,580,  and  for  the  low  wheels 

The  high  wheels  were  44-inch  front  wheels  and  56-inch  hind  wheels. 
"     medium  *•        *'    36     *'        **  "        "    40    "        "        *' 

«4     1^,^  4(        ♦♦    24    ««        M  ♦•        ««    28    "        "        •' 


WAGONS,  BUGGIES,  AND  SLEDS 


251 


EFFECT   OF  HEIGHT   OF  WHEELS  ON  DRAFT  * 

Draft  in  Pounds  per  Ton 


Description  of  Road  Surface 


Macadam ;  slightly  worn,  clean,  fair  con- 
dition     ... 

Dry  gravel  road ;  sand  i  inch  deep,  some 
loose  stones 

Earth  road— dry  and  hard 

"     — thawing  '/^-inch  sticky  mud. 

Timothy  and  bluegrass  sod,  dry,  grass  cut. 
"  "  "        wet  and  spongy. ..  . 

Corn ;  field  flat  culture  across  rows,  dry  on 
top 

Plowed  ground,  not  harrowed  dry  and 
cloddy 


High 

Medium 

Wheels 

Wheels 

57 

61 

84 

90 

69 

75 

lOI 

119 

132 

145 

173 

203 

178 

201 

252 

303 

Low 
Wheels 


70 
IIO 

99 
139 
179 

281 

265 
374 


The  width  of  tire  also  influences  the  rolling  resistance 
to  a  great  extent.  The  wide  tire  on  a  soft  road  bed  is 
able  to  carry  the  load  to  better  advantage  and  prevent  the 
wheel  cutting  in  as  far  as  it  would  otherwise. 

The  rolling  resistance  as  indicated  in  the  above  re- 
marks depends  largely  upon  the  condition  of  the  road  sur- 
face. The  harder  and  smoother  the  road  surface  the  less 
will  be  the  rolling  resistance.  It  is  for  this  reason  that 
much  larger  loads  may  be  hauled  upon  good  hard  roads 
than  upon  poor  soft  ones.  Prof.  J.  H.  Waters,  at  the 
Missouri  experiment  station,  has  conducted  extended  ex- 
periments to  determine  the  influence  of  the  width  of  tire 
upon  the  draft  of  wagons  when  used  on  various  road 
surfaces.  The  wheels  used  were  of  standard  height  and 
were  provided  with  i^-inch  and  6-inch  tires.  The  sum- 
mary of  the  results  of  these  experiments  states  that  the 
wide  tires  gave  a  lighter  draft  except  under  the  follow- 

*  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  No.  52,  1901. 


252 


FARM    MACHINERY 


ing  conditions :  (a)  When  the  earth  road  was  muddy, 
sloppy  and  sticky  but  firm  underneath,  (b)  when  the 
mud  was  deep  and  adhered  to  the  wheels,  (c)  when  the 
road  was  covered  with  deep  loose  dust,  and  (d)  when 
the  road  was  badly  rutted  with  the  narrow  tire. 

INFLUENCE  OP   WIDTH   OP   TIRE   UPON   DRAPT* 

Draft  in  Pounds  per  Ton 


Description  of  Road  Surface 

Width  of  Tire 

i^-Inch 

6-Inch 

Broken  stone  road— hard,  smooth,  and  no  dust 

Gravel  road— hard  and  smooth 

'*    —wet,  loose  sand,  i  to  2>^  inches  deep. 

Earth  road  loam,  dry  dust,  2  to  3  inches  deep 

♦•        ♦♦        •'      dry  and  hard,  no  dust 

121 

182 

246 

90 

149 

497 

286 
825 
466 

98 
134 
254 
106 
109 

••        •♦        ••      stiff    mud,    dry  on   top,   spongy 
underneath  

307 

•*        ••     clay,   sloppy   mud,  3  to  4  inches  hard 

406 

•«        "     clay   stiff,  deep  mud 

551 

Plowed  land  harrowed  smooth  and  compact 

323 

Besides  the  reduction  of  draft  attained  in  the  majority 
of  cases  with  the  use  of  wide  tires,  there  is  another  im- 
portant advantage  from  their  use,  as  there  is  less  ten- 
dency to  rut  and  destroy  the  road  surface.  It  is  be- 
lieved that  this  feature  should  be  placed  before  all  others. 

There  is  a  slight  increase  in  draft  with  an  increase  in 
speed.  Morin,  who  conducted  experiments  to  determine 
the  relation  between  draft  and  speed,  found  that  the  draft 
increased  about  as  the  fourth  root  of  the  speed.  The 
draft  upon  starting  a  load  is  greater  than  after  motion 
has  been  attained,  and  is  due  to  the  settling  of  the  load 
into  the  road  bed,  the  increased  axle  friction  of  rest,  and 

♦  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  No.  39,  1897. 


WAGONS,  BUGGIES,  AND  SLEDS  253 

the  extra  force  required  to  accelerate  the  load.  Springs 
tend  to  reduce  draft,  as  they  reduce  the  shocks  and  con> 
cussions  due  to  the  unevenness  and  irregularities  of  the 
road  surface.  Their  effect  is  greater  at  high  speeds  than 
at  lower. 

359.  Grade  resistance. — Grade  resistance  involves  the 
principle  of  the  inclined  plane,  and  may  be  explained  as 
the  force  required  to  prevent  the  load  from  rolling  down 
the  slope.  It  is  independent  of  everything  except  the 
angle  of  inclination. 

In  Fig.  184  if  JV  be  the  load  and  P  the  grade  resistance, 
AB  the  height  of  the  grade  and  CB  the  length,  by  com- 
pleting the  force  diagram  similar  triangles  are  obtained, 
from  which  it  is  seen : 

P  :  AB  ::    IV:  AC,     or    p  =  IV  X  ^ 

As  AC  is  very  nearly  equal  to  BC  for  ordinary  grades, 
no  great  error  will  be  accrued  by  substituting  BC  for  AC. 
Grades  are  usually  expressed  in  the  number  of  feet  rise 

and  fall  in  100  feet,  or  in 
the  number  of  per  cent  the 
total  rise  is  of  the  length 
of  the  grade.  Then  for 
practical  purposes  the 
^^4  grade  resistance  is  equal  to 

the  per  cent  of  the  total  load,  which  expresses  the  grade. 
For  example,  if  the  grade  is  5  per  cent  and  the  load 
2,000  pounds,  the  grade  resistance  will  be  100  pounds. 
The  foregoing  analysis  does  not  take  into  account  the 
way  the  load  is  placed  on  the  wagon  or  angle  of  hitch, 
which  may  lead  to  error. 

360.  Handy  wagons. — The  name  handy  wagon  is  given 
to  a  low-wheeled,  broad-tired  wagon  used  about  the  farm 
for  hauling  implements,  grain,  and  stock.    They  are  used 


FIG. 


254  FARM    MACHINERY 

to  a  limited  extent  in  road  transportation.  Two  styles 
of  wheels  are  used,  the  metal  with  spokes  cast  in  the  hub 
and  riveted  into  the  tire,  and  a  solid  wooden  wheel  bound 
with  a  tire  and  provided  with  a  cast  hub. 

The  metal  wheel  may  be  had  in  any  height  from  24 
inches  up.  The  wheel  with  staggard  oval  spokes  is  con- 
sidered stronger  than  the  straight  spoke  wheel,  as  it  is 
able  to  resist  side  hill  stresses  to  better  advantage. 

The  solid  wooden  wheel  is  very  strong  and  there  is  no 
tendency  for  the  wheel  to  fill  with  mud  above  the  tire. 
The  fact  that  the  wheel  proper  is  made  of  wood  requires 
an  occasional  setting  of  tires,  but  this  is  not  often,  as  the 
wheel  is  filled  with  circular  wooden  disks  with  the  grain 
of  the  sections  at  right  angles,  and  there  is  little  shrink- 
age on  account  of  the  small  diameter  of  the  wheel.  Four- 
or  5-inch  tires  are  common  widths  used  on  handy  wag- 
ons, although  almost  any  width  may  be  obtained. 

Some  handy  wagons  are  made  very  cheaply  and  sold  at 
a  very  low  price.  These  wagons  are  poorly  ironed,  do 
not  have  any  front  or  rear  hounds,  and  are  poorly  fin- 
ished. Others  are  made  with  as  much  care  as  the  stand- 
ard farm  wagon  and  are  as  well  finished.  Care  should 
be  used  in  the  selection  of  a  handy  wagon.  Although 
boxes  may  be  used  upon  handy  wagons  the  wagon  used 
about  the  farm  is  usually  equipped  with  a  rack  or  a  flat 
top  which  readily  permits  the  loading  of  implements, 
fodder,  etc. 

BUGGIES  AND  CARRIAGES 

361.  Selection. — Light  vehicles  for  driving  have  been 
in  use  since  the  introduction  of  springs  and  good  roads. 
The  points  which  make  a  buggy  or  a  carriage  popular  are 
lightness,  neatness  of  design,  excellent  and  durable  fin- 
ish, good  bracing,   a  reliable   fifth   wheel,   well-secured 


WAGONS,  BUGGIES,  AND  SLEDS  255 

clips,  and  a  body  sufficiently  braced  and  stayed  and,  if 
SO  provided,  with  a  neat  leather  or  at  least  leather  quar- 
ter top.  Leather  quarter  is  the  name  given  to  tops  made 
with  leather  sides  above  the  curtains,  while  the  roof  is 
made  of  the  cheaper  material,  rubber  or  oil  cloth. 

It  is  very  hard  to  detect  quality  in  a  buggy  and  the  re- 
liability and  guarantee  of  the  manufacturer  must  be  de- 
pended upon  to  a  large  extent.  As  in  the  construction 
of  wagons  and  implements,  poor  quality  may  be  detected 
by  poor  workmanship  used  in  the  construction.  Only 
the  best  materials,  carefully  cured,  should  be  used  in  the 
construction.     The  wheels  and  other  wood  parts  of  the 


FIG.   185 — A  LONG-DISTANCE  BUGGY  AXLE,      NOTE  THE  PROVISION  MADE  TO 
EXCLUDE  DUST  AND   DIRT 

gear  should  be  made  of  best  hickory.  This  is  especially 
true  of  the  wheels,  which  must  meet  with  very  hard 
service.  The  rims  of  the  wheels  should  be  well  clipped 
and  screwed. 

362.  The  body  or  box  should  be  made  of  the  very  best 
yellow  poplar  and  should  be  well  screwed  and  braced. 
The  plain  top  buggy  has  two  common  styles  of  bodies: 
the  piano  box,  which  is  narrow  and  has  the  same  height 
of  panel  all  around,  and  the  corning  body,  which  has  low 
panels  just  back  of  the  dashboard. 

363.  Hubs. — Two  styles  of  hubs  are  in  general  use, 
the  compressed  hub  with  staggard  spokes  and  the  Sarven 
patent  hub.  The  former  is  perhaps  the  stronger  but 
more  difficult  to  repair. 

There   are   many   other  parts   which   might  be   men- 


256  FARM    MACHINERY 

tioned,  as  the  styles  of  springs,  spring  bars,  box  loops, 
etc.,  but  it  is  not  deemed  wise  to  take  up  space. 

364.  The  painting  of  a  buggy  is  of  great  importance 
and  should  be  done  only  by  an  expert.  Several  coats  of 
filler   should  be   used,   and  between    coats  it  should  be 


FIG.     186 — A     COMPRESSED  FIG.    187 — A    SARVEN 

WHEEL   HUB  WHEEL    HUB 

well  sandpapered.  In  all,  there  should  be  20  to  24  coats 
applied.  It  is  stated  that  the  varnish  for  the  body  should 
be  first-grade  copal,  and  for  the  gears  second-grade  copal, 
which  should  be  very  carefully  rubbed  between  coats  and 
the  final  coat  should  be  rubbed  with  the  palm  of  the 
hand. 

SLEDS 

365.  Utility  and  selection. — Sleds  were  the  first  means 
of  conveyance  known  to  man,  and  among  the  uncivilized 
they  are  still  the  only  conveyance.  There  has  probably 
been  as  great  a  change  made  in  the  sled  as  in  the  wagon 
since  man  commenced  to  improve  his  machinery. 

Due  to  the  variety  of  work  required  of  sleds  and  the 
climatic  conditions,  there  is  almost  invariably  a  different 
type  of  sled  required  in  every  locality.  In  heavily  tim- 
bered countries  where  there  is  an  extended  season  of 
snow,  sleds  are  made  with  as  much  care  as  wagons,  while 


WAGONS,  BUGGIES,  AND  SLEDS  2^7 

in  communities  where  sleds  are  used  only  at  intermittent 
times  of  the  year  and  then  only  as  a  substitute  for  a 
wagon  with  light  loads,  they  are  very  much  more  cheaply 
built. 

Where  the  runners  of  a  sled  are  bent  they  should  be 
of  either  ash  or  hickory.  If  the  natural  curve  of  a  tree 
is  used,  good  hard  wood  will  do.  If  the  curve  is  sawed, 
white  oak  is  better.     All  other  parts  should  be  of  oak. 

The  knees  should  be  fastened  by  means  of  two  bolts 
on  each  end.  This  will  prevent  splitting.  All  connec- 
tions are  better  if  made  flexible,  and  it  is  more  convenient 
to  have  the  front  bob  connected  so  it  can  turn  under  the 
load.  The  shoes  are  more  economical  when  made  of 
cast  iron  and  removable.  In  communities  where  there 
is  no  continued  season  of  snow  a  cheaper  type  of  sled  is 
sufficient.  In  such  cases  the  shoes  can  be  made  of 
wrought  iron,  the  bobs  connected  directly  by  a  short 
reach  and  eyes,  and  the  flexible  parts  dispensed  with. 

366.  Capacity. — A  bob  sled  with  two  knees  in  each 
bob  ought  to  have  a  capacity  of  about  4,000  pounds,  and 
one  with  three  knees,  of  6,000  pounds. 

There  is  practically  no  limit  to  the  load  a  team  can 
handle  on  a  sled  provided  they  can  start  it.  In  most 
cases  it  is  better  to  carry  a  bar  to  assist  in  starting  the 
load  and  thus  avoid  the  troublesome  lead  team. 

In  hilly  countries  it  is  essential  to  have  some  method 
for  holding  the  load  back  in  descending  and  to  keep  it 
standing  while  the  team  breathes  upon  ascending  a  hill. 
A  short  chain  attached  to  the  runner  and  dropped  be- 
neath it  will  hold  the  load  back  when  descending  a  hill. 
In  some  localities  a  curved  spike  extending  to  the  rear  is 
bolted  to  the  sled  in  such  a  manner  as  to  prevent  the 
sled  from  sliding  backward  when  pressed  to  the  snow  by 
the  teamster. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
PUMPING  MACHINERY 


367.  Early  methods  of  raising  water. — The  oldest 
method  of  raising  water  was  by  bailing.  The  vessel  and 
the  water  it  contained  were  raised  either  by  hand  or  by 
machines  to  which  power  might  be  applied.  The  buck- 
ets were  provided  with  a  handle  or  a  rope  when  it  was 
desired  to  draw  water  from  some  depth.  To  aid  in  draw- 
ing water  from  wells,  the  long  sweep  or  lever  weighted 

at  one  end  was  devised.  This 
sweep  is  often  seen  illustrated 
in  pictures  of  an  old  home- 
stead and  similar  pictures.  Fol- 
lowing the  sweep,  a  rope  over 
a  pulley  with  two  buckets,  one 
at  each  end,  was  used.  Later, 
one  bucket  was  used  and  the 
rope  carried  over  a  guide  pul- 
ley and  wound  around  a  drum. 
This  latter  method  of  raising 
has  not  entirely  disappeared 
and  is  still  in  use  in  many  places. 

For  raising  water  short  distances  and  in  large  quantities, 
swinging  scoops  and  flash  wheels  are  used.  The  scoop 
is  provided  with  a  handle  and  is  swung  by  a  cord  long 
enough  to  permit  it  to  be  dipped  into  the  water.  The 
water  is  simply  pitched  to  a  higher  elevation  much  like 
grain  is  elevated.  Flash  wheels  are  the  reverse  of  the 
undershot  water  wheel;  the  paddles  or  blades  ascend- 
ing a  chase  or  waterway  carry  the  water  along  with 


FIG.  188 — THE  WELL  SWEEP, 
AN  OLD  METHOD  OF  RAIS- 
ING  WATER 


PUMPING   MACHINERY  259 

them.  If  operated  by  hand  the  paddles  are  hinged  like 
valves  and  are  rocked  back  and  forth  in  the  waterway. 
Flash  wheels  are  used  extensively  in  Holland  in  draining 
low  lands. 

The  Chinese  devised  at  a  very  early  time  scoop  wheels 
which  have  buckets  on  the  periphery.  These  buckets  dip 
into  water  and  are  set  at  such  an  incline  that  they  carry 
almost  their  full  capacity  to  the  upper  side,  and  there  they 
pour  their  contents  into  a  trough.  They  are  sometimes 
hinged  and  are  made  to  discharge  their  contents  by  strik- 
ing against  a  suitable  guide.  Wheels  of  this  nature  may 
now  be  used  profitably  where  a  large  quantity  of  water 
is  to  be  elevated  for  only  short  distances. 

One  of  the  oldest  water-raising  devices  made  famous 
by  history  is  the  Archimedean  screw.  It  consists  essen- 
tially of  a  tube  wound  spirally  around  an  inclined  shaft 
and  taking  part  in  the  rotation  of  this  shaft.  The  pitch 
of  the  screw  and  the  inclination  of  the  shaft  are  so 
chosen  that  a  portion  of  each  turn  will  always  slope 
downward  and  form  a  pocket.  A  certain  quantity  of 
water  will  be  carried  up  the  screw  in  these  pockets 
as  it  is  rotated.  At  the  upper  end  of  the  inclined 
screw  the  water  is  discharged  from  the  open  end  of  the 
tube. 

368.  Reciprocating  pumps. — As  advancement  came 
along  other  lines  of  machinery,  the  early  devices  for 
raising  water  gave  way  to  the  introduction  of  more  effi- 
cient machines  to  which  may  properly  be  given  the  name 
of  pumps,  the  most  common  of  which  is  the  reciprocating 
pump.  A  reciprocating  pump  consists  essentially  of  a 
cylinder  and  a  closely  fitting  piston. 

369.  Classes. — Reciprocating  pumps  may  be  divided 
into  two  classes: 

I.  Pumps  having  solid  pistons  or  plunger  pumps. 


26o  FARM    MACHINERY 

2.  Pumps  having  valves  in  the  piston  or  bucket  pumps. 

Plunger  pumps  will  not  be  considered  in  this  discus- 
sion, for,  at  the  present  time,  their  use  is  confined  almost 
entirely  to  steam  and  large  power  pumps.  Pumps  used 
for  agricultural  purposes  are  almost  universally  of  the 
latter  type. 

Pumps  may  further  be  divided  into  tv/o  distinct 
classes : 

1.  Suction  or  lift  pumps. 

2.  Force  pumps. 

Suction  pumps  do  not  elevate  the  water  above  the 
pump  standard.  The  pump  standard  is  the  part  which 
is  above  the  well  platform  when  speaking  of  pumps  for 
hand  or  windmill  power.  A  pump  will  then  necessarily 
include  the  standard,  cylinder,  and  pipes. 

370.  Pump  principles. — Before  continuing  the  discus- 
sion it  will  be  well  to  take  some  of  the  principles  con- 
nected with  the  action  of  pumps.  The  action  of  a  plain 
suction  pump  when  set  in  operation  is  to  create  a  vacuum, 
and  atmospheric  pressure  when  the  lower  end  of  the  suc- 
tion pipe  is  immersed  in  water  causes  the  vacuum  to  be 
filled.  Atmospheric  pressure  amounts  to  about  14.7 
pounds  per  square  inch.  Water  gives  a  pressure  of  .434 
pound  per  square  inch  for  each  foot  of  depth,  or  each  foot 
of  head,  as  it  is  usually  spoken  of.  Thus  atmospheric 
pressure  will  sustain  a  water  column  only  about  33.9  feet, 
above  which  a  vacuum  will  be  formed.  Pumps  will  not 
draw  water  satisfactorily  by  suction  more  than  25  feet, 
and  it  is  much  preferred  to  have  the  distance  less  than 
20  feet.  It  is  often  an  advantage  to  have  the  cylinder 
submerged. 

371.  Hydraulic  information. — The  following  informa- 
tion will  be  useful  in  making  calculations  involving 
pumping  machinery: 


PUMPING   MACHINERY  26l 

A  United  States  gallon  contains  231  cubic  inches. 

A  cubic  foot  of  water  weighs  62.5  pounds. 

A  gallon  of  water  weighs  8^3  pounds. 

A  cubic  foot  contains  approximately  714  gallons. 

The  pressure  of  a  column  of  water  is  equal  to  its 
height  multiplied  by  .434.  Approximately  the  pressure 
is  equal  to  one-half  of  the  height  of  water  column  or  head. 

Formulas  for  pump  capacity  and  power: 

D  =  diameter  of  pump  cylinder  in  inches. 
N  :=  number  of  strokes  per  minute. 

H  =  total  height  water  is  elevated,  figuring  from  the  surface  of 
suction  water  to  highest  point  of  discharge. 
S  =:  length  of  stroke  in  inches. 
Q  =  quantity  of  water  in  gallons  raised  per  minute. 

D'  X  .7854  X  S  =:  capacity  of  pump  in  cubic  inches  per  stroke. 

D'  X  S 

— — —  capacity  of  pump  per  stroke  in  gallons. 

D'XS 

35266 

D'XSXN 

294 

D'  X  S  X  H  X  N 

35.268 


—  capacity  of  pump  per  stroke  in  pounds  of  water. 
=.  capacity  of  pump  per  minute  in  gallons. 
=  number  of  foot-pounds  of  work  per  minute. 


A  rule  which  may  be  used  to  calculate  roughly  the 
capacity  of  a  pump  is  as  follows:  The  number  of  gal- 
lons pumped  per  minute  by  a  pump  with  a  lo-inch  stroke 
at  30  strokes  per  minute  is  equal  to  the  square  of  the 
diameter  of  the  cylinder  in  inches.  From  this  rule  it  is 
easy  to  calculate  the  capacity  of  a  pump  of  a  longer  or 
shorter  stroke  and  making  more  or  less  strokes  per  min- 
ute. 

372.  Friction  of  pumps. — Pumps  used  to  pump  water 
from  wells  are  of  rather  low  efficiency;  on  an  average, 
35  per  cent  of  the  power  is  required  to  overcome  friction 


262 


FARM  MACHINERY 


FLAT  SLIDE  BAR 


HANDLE  PIN 


FULCRUM  Pin 


HANDLE 


FIG.    190 A  CAST-IRON   PUMP  STANDAR- 


FIG.   189 — A  SUCTION  PUMP  IN  WITH  THE  COMMON   NAMES  FOR 

A  WELL  ITS    PARTS 


PUMPING  MACHINERY 


263 


alone.  Often  as  much  as  one-half  or  even  more  of  the 
power  is  required  for  this  purpose.  A  common  rule  in 
use  to  determine  approximately  the  power  required  to 
operate  a  farm  pump  is  that  one  horse  power  is  required 
to  lift  30  gallons  100  feet  per  minute.  From  this  rule  it 
is  easy  to  calculate  for  different  capacities  at  more  or  less 
head.  The  rule  assumes  a  mechanical  efficiency  of  68 
per  cent  on  the  part  of  the  pump. 

The  friction  of  water  flowing  in  pipes  is  also  very 
great.  The  loss  of  head  due  to  friction  is  proportional 
to  the  length  of  the  pipe  and  varies  about  as  the  square 
of  the  velocity  of  the  flow.  It  is  greatly  increased  by 
angles,  valves,  roughness,  and  obstructions  in  the  pipe. 

The  following  table  given  by  Henry  N.  Ogden  indi- 
cates the  loss  of  head  due  to  friction  in  pipes : 

LOSS   OP   HEAD  DUE   TO   FRICTION* 


Flow  in  Gallons  per 

Loss  of  Head  by  Friction  in  each  loo  Feet 
of  Length 

Minute 

K-Inch  Pipe 

i-Inch  Pipe 

0.5 

I.O 

2.0 

4.0 

7.0 

10. 0 

4 

7 

17 

54 

140 

224 

0.3 
0.7 
1.6 

5.3 
9-3 

The  importance  of  choosing  a  pipe  of  sufficient  size 
for  the  flow  per  minute  and  the  length  of  pipe  is  shown 
by  this  table.  For  instance,  suppose  it  is  desired  to  de- 
liver seven  gallons  a  minute  at  a  distance  of  500  feet. 
The  J/2-inch  pipe  would  require  an  impractical  head  of 

♦The  Installation  of  Farm  Water  Supplies— Cyclopedia  of  American  Agri- 
culture, Vol.  I.,  page  294. 


264  FARM    MACHINERY 

700  feet,  while  i-inch  pipe  would  need  only  about  26  feet 
of  head  to  secure  the  desired  flow. 

373.  Wells. — The  type  of  pump  used  will  often  depend 
upon  the  kind  of  well.  Wells  are  divided  into  four 
classes:  (a)  dug  or  bored  wells,  (b)  driven  wells,  (c)  tubu- 
lar wells,  and  (d)  drilled  wells.  Dug  wells  are  those 
from  which  the  earth  is  removed  by  a  bucket,  rope,  and 
windlass.  These  wells  are  either  walled  with  stone  or 
brick  or  cased  with  wooden  or  tile  curbing.  Bored  wells 
belong  to  the  same  class  except  the  earth  is  removed 
from  the  well  with  an  auger.  Pumps  for  dug  or  bored 
wells  are  independent  of  the  casing,  and  any  common 
type  may  be  used  provided  the  cylinder  is  placed  within 
the  proper  distance  of  the  water.  Driven  wells  are  made 
by  attaching  a  point  with  a  screened  opening  to  permit 
of  a  flow  of  water  to  the  casing,  usually  i^-inch  galvan- 
ized pipe,  and  the  whole  driven  to  sand  or  gravel  strata 
bearing  water.  A  driven  well  does  not  extend  through 
rock  strata.  Tubular  wells  are  made  by  attaching  a 
cutting  edge  to  the  well  casing,  which  is  usually  made 
of  pipe  2  inches  in  diameter,  and  which  is  sunk  into  the 
opening  made  by  a  drill  which  operates  inside  of  the 
casing.  The  earth  and  chips  of  stone  are  removed  by  a 
stream  of  water  which  flows  out  through  the  hollow  drill 
rod  in  the  form  of  a  thin  mud.  A  screened  sand  point 
similar  to  those  used  in  driven  wells  is  placed  in  the 
bottom  of  the  well  after  it  has  been  finished.  A  turned 
flange  is  provided  which  prevents  the  point  from  pass- 
ing beyond  the  casing.  A  pit  6  feet  deep  and  4  feet 
square,  walled  with  brick,  stone,  or  cement,  should  be 
placed  around  driven  and  tubular  wells  to  permit  of  the 
use  of  underground  pumps,  or  to  provide  a  vent  hole  to 
prevent  water  freezing  in  the  pump  standard  during  cold 
weather.    It  is  an  advantage  to  have  the  well  at  least  6 


PUMPING    MACHINERY  265 

inches  from  one  side  of  the  pit  wall,  as  this  will  permit 
the  use  of  pipe  tools  to  better  advantage. 

Drilled  wells  are  much  like  tubular  wells  except  thai 
they  are  larger,  usually  6  or  8  inches  in  diameter,  cased 
with  wrought-iron  pipe  or  galvanized-iron  tubing.  The 
pump  is  independent  of  the  casing  and  may  be  removed 
without  molesting  it  in  any  way. 

Pump  cylinders  or  barrels  usually  form  a  section  of 
the  casing  in  driven  and  tubular  wells.  The  lower  check 
valve  is  seated  below  the  barrel  by  expanding  a  rubber 
bush  against  the  walls  of  the  well  casing  in  such  a  way 
as  to  hold  it  firmly  in  place.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  wooden 
pump  rods  should  be  used  for  deep-driven  and  tubular 
wells,  for  wooden  rods  may  not  only  be  lighter,  but 
displace  a  large  amount  of  water,  reducing  the  weight  on 
the  pump  rod  during  the  up  stroke. 

374.  Wooden  pumps. — The  first  pumps  were  made  of 
wood,  simply  bored  out  smoothly  and  fitted  with  a  piston. 
The  wood  used  was  either  oak,  maple,  or  poplar.  Later 
an  iron  cylinder  was  provided  for  the  piston  to  work  in. 
The  better  pumps  of  to-day  belonging  to  this  class  have 
porcelain-lined  or  brass  cylinders.  These  lined  cylinders 
are  smoother  and  are  not  acted  upon  by  rust.  Wooden 
pumps  are  nearly  all  lift  pumps  and  can  be  used  only  in 
shallow  wells.  The  cylinder  is  fitted  in  the  lower  end  of 
the  stock  and  no  provision  is  made  for  lowering  it. 
Wooden  pumps  are  used  with  wooden  piping,  the  ends  of 
the  pipe  being  driven  into  the  lower  end  of  the  stock  so 
as  to  form  an  air-tight  joint. 

375.  Lift  pumps. — Lift  pumps  include  all  pumps  not 
made  to  elevate  water  above  the  pump  standard.  For 
this  reason  the  top  of  the  pump  is  made  open  and  the 
pump  rod  not  packed,  as  is  the  case  in  force  pumps.  Lift 
pumps,  in  the  cheaper  types,  are  cast  in  one  piece,  the 


266  FARM    MACHINERY 

handle  and  top  set  in  one  direction,  which  cannot  be 
changed.  Another  style  of  light  pump  is  made  in  which 
the  lower  part  of  the  standard  is  a  piece  of  wrought-iron 
pipe.  The  cast  standard  has  one  advantage  in  cold  cli- 
mates, as  it  permits  warm  air  from  the  well  to  circulate 
around  the  pipe  where  it  extends  into  the  standard  and 
prevents  freezing  to  a  certain  extent. 

376.  Pump  tops. — Pump  tops  are  divided  into  two 
classes,  known  as  hand  and  windmill  tops.  The  former 
permits  the  use  of  hand  power  only,  while  with  the  latter 
the  pump  rod  is  extended  so  as  to  permit  windmill  con- 
nection. At  least  two  methods  are  to  be  found  for  fasten- 
ing the  pump  top  in  place :  set  screws  and  offset  bolts. 
The  latter  seem  to  give  the  best  satisfaction,  as  they  give 
more  surface  to  support  the  top  and  are  not  apt  to  work 
loose  from  the  jerky  motion  given  to  the  pump  handle. 
Windmill  tops  should  be  provided  with  interchangeable 
guides  or  bushes,  which  may  be  replaced  when  worn. 
This  is  not  important,  however,  as  very  little  wear  comes 
upon  the  bushes,  the  forces  being  transmitted  in  a  vertical 
direction  only. 

377.  Spouts. — Spouts  are  either  cast  with  the  pump 
standard  or  made  detachable.  They  are  styled  by  the 
makers  plain,  siphon  or  gooseneck,  and  cock  spouts. 
The  object  of  the  siphon  spout  seems  to  be  the  securing 
of  a  more  even  flow  of  water  from  the  pump.  If  the  pump 
is  a  force  pump,  the  spout  should  be  provided  with  some 
means  of  making  a  hose  connection.  The  cock  spout  is 
for  this  purpose,  but  a  yoke  hose  connection  or  clevis 
may  be  used  for  the  same  purpose  with  a  disk  of  leather 
in  the  place  of  the  regular  washer. 

378.  Bases. — Like  the  spout,  the  base  may  be  cast  with 
the  rest  of  the  pump  standard.  However,  there  are  two 
other  types  found  upon  the  market:  the  adjustable  and 


PUMPING   MACHINERY  267 

Split  or  ornamental.  It  is  a  great  advantage  in  fitting  the 
standard  to'  a  driv^en  well  to  have  the  base  adjustable, 
doing  aw^ay  with  the  necessity  of  cutting  the  pipe  an 
exact  length  in  order  to  have  the  base  rest  upon  the 
pump  platform  or  having  to  build  the  platform  to  the 
pump  base. 

379.  Force  pumps. — Force  pumps  are  those  designed 
to  force  water  against  pressure  or  into  an  elevated  tank. 
In  order  to  do  this  the  pump  rod  must  be  packed  to 
make  it  air  tight.  Force  pumps  are  also  provided  with 
an  air  chamber  to  prevent  shocks  on  the  pump.  It  is 
common  practice  to  use  the  upper  part  of  the  pump 
standard  for  the  air  chamber.  It  has  a  vent  cock  or  a 
vent  screw  to  permit  the  introduction  of  air  when  the 
pump  becomes  waterlogged.  With  tubular  wells  it  is 
an  advantage  to  have  a  pump  standard  with  a  large  open- 
ing its  entire  length  and  a  removable  cap  to  permit  the 
withdrawal  of  the  plunger  or  cylinder.  The  two  most 
common  methods  of  providing  for  this  are  to  have  the 
pump  caps  screwed  on  and  to  have  the  cap  and  the  pump 
top  in  one  piece.  In  the  latter  case  the  entire  top  is  made 
air  tight  by  drawing  it  down  on  a  leather  gasket  or 
washer  on  the  top  of  the  standard. 

380.  Double-pipe  pumps  or  underground  force  pumps. 
This  class  of  pump  is  used  where  the  water  is  to  be  forced 
underground,  away  from  the  pump  to  some  tank  or  reser- 
voir. These  pumps  are  built  with  either  a  hand  or  a 
windmill  top.  A  two-way  cock  is  provided,  manipulated 
from  the  platform  to  send  the  water  either  out  of  the 
spout  above  the  platform  or  through  the  underground 
pipe.  As  the  piston  rod  of  these  pumps  has  to  be  packed 
below  the  platform  where  it  is  not  of  free  access,  we 
find  in  use  a  method  of  packing  known  as  the  stuffing- 
box  tube  to  take  the  place  of  the  ordinary  brass  bush. 


268 


FARM  MACHINERY 


ADJUSTABLE 


FIG.  igi — A  DOUBLE  PIPE  OR  UN- 
DERGROUND PUMP  WITH  STUFF- 
ING-BOX TUBE  AND  ADJUSTABLE 


f OP  SAFETY  VALVt 
FIG.         192 — AN  UNDERGROUND 

PUMP  WITH  ORNAMENTAL 
BASE  AND  EQUIPPED  WITH  A 
WINDMILL  REGULATOR 


PUMPING   MACHINERY  269 

The  Stuffing-box  tube  is  nothing  more  nor  less  than  an 
auxiliary  piston  fitted  with  the  regular  leathers.  The 
tube  is  always  made  of  brass,  and  does  not  need  attention 
as  often  as  the  regular  stuffing  box. 

381.  Pump  cylinders. — Three  classes  of  pump  cylin- 
ders are  found  upon  the  market:  Iron,  brass-lined,  and 
brass-body.  Iron  cylinders  are  used  mostly  in  shallow 
wells.  Brass-lined  and  brass-body  cylinders  are  the 
most  desirable,  as  they  work  very  smoothly  and  will  not 
corrode  in  the  least.  Iron  cylinders  are  often  galvanized 
to  prevent  rusting.  Brass-body  cylinders  have  the  cylin- 
drical portion  between  the  caps  made  entirely  of  brass. 
Brass  cylinders  are  easily  damaged  by  being  dented,  and 
when  so  damaged  cannot  be  repaired  to  good  advantage. 
Brass  being  a  soft  metal,  some  difficulty  is  encountered 
in  making  a  good  connection  between  the  cylinder  and 
the  caps  by  screw  threads.  In  order  to  strengthen  the 
brass-body  cylinder  at  this  point,  the  caps  are  often  fitted 
on  the  cylinder  by  rods  at  the  sides. 

Cylinders  to  be  used  inside  of  tubular  or  drilled  wells 
are  made  with  flush  caps  to  enable  a  larger  cylinder  to  be 
put  into  the  well. 

382.  Valves. — The  valves  of  a  pump  are  a  very  vital 
part.  Most  valves  are  made  of  iron  in  the  piston  and 
leather  in  the  cylinder  cap.  Brass  often  makes  a  better 
valve  than  iron,  as  it  will  not  corrode.  The  valve  com- 
monly used  is  known  as  a  poppet  valve,  and  may  have 
one  or  three  prongs.  The  single-pronged  valve  is  not 
interfered  with  by  sand  to  the  same  extent  as  the  three- 
pronged.  Ball  valves  are  used  in  deep-well  pumps,  but  it 
is  very  difficult  to  keep  these  valves  tight.  Various  ma- 
terials are  used  out  of  which  to  make  the  valve  seats. 
One  large  manufacturer  manufactures  valve  seats  of  glass 
and  makes  many  claims  for  their  superiority. 


270  FARM    MACHINERY 

Pump  pistons  are  usually  provided  with  only  one  cap 
leather  for  the  piston.  For  high  pressures  more  are 
needed,  and  in  the  better  makes  of  deep-well  pumps  the 
pistons  are  provided  with  three  or  even  four  leathers. 

383.  Pump  regulators  have  a  hydraulic  cylinder  at- 
tached, into  which  the  pump  forces  water  when  the  con- 
nection with  the  tank  is  cut  off  by  a  float  valve.  The 
hydraulic  cylinder  is  provided  with  a  piston  and  a  stuffing 
box  and  a  piston  rod.  Connection  is  made  by  a  chain 
to  a  quadrant  on  a  weighted  lever  above  the  platform. 
This  lever  is  also  attached  to  the  pull-out  wire  of  the 
mill.  All  the  water  being  forced  into  the  hydraulic  cylin- 
der, enough  pressure  is  created  to  pull  the  mill  out  of 
gear.  Safety  valves  are  provided  to  prevent  too  great 
pressures  coming  on  the  hydraulic  cylinder,  which  might 
cause  breakage. 

384.  Chain  and  bucket  pumps. — Chain  pumps  have  the 
pistons  or  buckets  attached  to  a  chain  running  over  a 
sprocket  wheel  at  the  upper  or  crank  end,  and  dip  in  the 
water  at  the  lower.  The  buckets  are  drawn  up  through 
a  tube,  into  which  they  fit  and  carry  along  with  them 
the  water  from  the  well.  The  chain  pump  is  suited  only 
for  low  lifts. 

Another  type  of  pump  similar  to  the  above  and  some- 
times styled  a  water  elevator  has  buckets  open  at  one 
end,  attached  to  the  chain.  These  are  filled  at  the  bottom 
and  are  carried  to  the  top,  where  they  are  emptied.  It 
is  claimed  the  buckets  carry  air  into  the  water  and  this 
has  a  beneficial  effect. 

385.  Power  pumps  are  not  used  very  extensively  about 
the  farm  except  for  irrigation  and  drainage  purposes. 
W  hen  the  power  is  applied  with  a  belt  the  pump  is  known 
as  a  belted  pump.  If  provided  with  two  cylinders,  it  is 
known  as  duplex;  if  three,  triplex.     The  cylinders  may 


PirMPlJrG   MACSIN'ERY  ^/^f 

be  single  or  double  acting.  In  double-acting  pumps  the 
water  is  discharged  at  each  forward  and  backward  stroke. 
The  capacity  of  a  double-acting  pump  is  twice  that  of  a 
single-acting  pump.  A  direct-connected  pump  is  on  the 
same  shaft  with  the  motor  or  engine,  or  coupled  thereto. 


FIG.   193— A  ROTARY  PUMP 

386.  Rotary  pumps  are  used  to  some  extent  in  pump- 
ing about  the  farm.  They  are  not  suited  for  high  lifts, 
as  there  is  too  much  slippage  of  the  water  past  the 
pistons.  They  are  not  very  durable,  and  it  is  doubtful  if 
they  will  ever  come  into  extensive  use. 

387.  Centrifugal  pumps  are  used  where  a  large  quan- 


1^2 


FARM    MACHINERY 


tity  of  water  is  to  be  moved  through  a  short  h'ft,  as  hi 
drainage  and  irrigation  work.    They  are  efficient  machines 


FIG.   194 — SECTION  OF  A  ROTARY  PUMF  SHOWING  PISTONS 

for  low  Hfts  at  least,  and  will  handle  dirty  water  better 
than  any  other  kind  of  pump.     Centrifugal  pumps   are 


FIG.     195 — CENTRIFUGAL    PUMP 

made  with  either  a  vertical  or  a  horizontal  shaft.     The 
pumps  with  a  vertical  shaft  are  called  vertical  pumps  and 


PUMPING   MACHINERY 


^7Z 


may  be  placed  in  wells  of  small  diameter.  This  class  of 
pump  gives  but  little  suction  and  works  the  best  when 
immersed  in  the  water. 

388.  The  hydraulic  ram. — Where  a  fall  of  water  of 
sufficient  head  and  volume  is  at  hand,  it  may  be  used  to 
elevate  a  portion  of  the  flow  of  water  to  a  higher  eleva- 
tion. The  action  of  a  hydraulic  ram  depends  upon  the 
intermittent  Jlow  of  a  stream  of  water  whose  momentum 
when  brought  to  rest  is  used  in  forcing  a  smaller  stream 
to  higher  elevation.  The  ram  consists  essentially  of 
(a)  a  drive  pipe  leading  the  water  from  an  elevated  source 
to  the  ram ;  (&)  a  valve  which  automatically  shuts  off  the 
flow  of  water  from  the  drive  pipe  through  the  overflow, 
after  sufficient  momentum  has  been  gathered  by  the 
water;  (c)  an  air  chamber  in  which  air  is  compressed  by 
the  moving  water  in  the  drive  pipe  in  coming  to  rest; 
and  (J)  a  discharge  pipe  of  smaller  diameter  leading  to 
the  elevated  reservoir. 

TABLE   OF   PROPORTIONATE   HEAD,    GIVING   HIGHEST    EFFICIENCY    IN 
OPERATION    OF    HYDRAULIC    RAM* 


To  Deliver  Water  to 
Height  of 


Place  Ram  under 


Conducted  Through 


20  feet  above  ram 

40 

80 

J20      ••  •♦  •• 


3  feet  Head  of  Fall 
5    ** 
10    •• 

17  '* 


30  feet  of  Drive  Pipe 
40  *♦ 

80  '• 
125  " 


Under  the  foregoing  conditions  about  12  times  as  much 
water  will  be  required  to  operate  ram  as  will  be  dis- 
charged. 

Hydraulic  rams  are  manufactured  in  sizes  to  discharge 
from  I  to  60  gallons  a  minute,  and  for  larger  capacities 

*  The  Gould  Company,  Chicago. 


274 


FARM    MACHINERY 


rams  may  be  used  in  batteries.  To  replenish  the  air  in 
the  air  chamber,  a  snifting  valve  is  placed  on  the  drive 
pipe.  In  freezing  weather  it  is  necessary  to  protect  the 
ram  by  housing,  and  often  artificial  heat  must  be  supplied. 
389.  Water  storage. — Owing  to  the  fact  that  water 
must  in  nearly  all  cases  be  pumped  at  certain  times  which 


FIG.    196 — HYDRAULIC    RAM    IN    OUTLINE 


may  vary  greatly  in  the  intervals  between  each  other, 
some  form  of  water  storage  must  be  had  in  order  to 
secure  at  all  times  an  adequate  su()ply  to  meet  the  con- 
stant needs.  It  is  not  only  necessary  to  have  a  supply 
to  furnish  water  for  stock  and  household  needs,  but  also 
for  fire  protection. 

390.  Amount  of  water  needed. — The  amount  of  water 
required  for  household  purposes  with  modern  conven- 
iences has  been  found  to  be  about  20  gallons  a  person,- 
large  or  small.  A  horse  will  drink  about  7  gallons  a 
day  and  a  cow  5  to  6  gallons.  From  this  data  the  amount 
of  water  used  a  day  may  be  estimated.    If  a  windmill  is 


PUMPING   MACHINERY  275 

used  to  pump  the  water,  three  to  four  days'  supply  should 
be  stored  to  provide  for  a  calm.  If  a  gasoline  engine  is 
used,  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  store  for  so  long  an  in- 
terval. Two  systems  of  storing  water  are  now  in  use  :  the 
elevated  tank  and  the  pneumatic  tank. 

391.  Storage  tanks. — The  elevated  tank  may  be  placed 
outside  on  a  tower,  or  in  the  building  upon  an  upper 
floor.  The  objection  to  placing  a  tank  in  a  building 
is  the  great  weight  to  be  supported.  It  has  the  advan- 
tage of  being  protected  from  dirt  and  the  weather. 
The  elevated  tank  on  a  tower  is  exposed  to  freezing  in 
winter  and  to  the  heat  of  the  sun  in  summer.  Further- 
more, a  tower  and  a  wooden  tank  are  not  very  durable. 
The  elevated  tank  is  cheaper  than  the  pneumatic  system 
where  a  large  amount  of  storage  is  desired.  A  reservoir 
located  on  a  natural  prominence,  when  such  a  location 
can  be  secured,  offers  many  advantages  in  the  way  of 
capacity  and  cheapness. 

The  pneumatic  or  air-pressure  system  has  an  inclosed 
tank  partly  filled  with  air  and  partly  with  water.  When 
filled  the  air  is  under  pressure,  and,  being  elastic,  will 
give  the  same  kind  of  pressure  to  the  water  as  an  elevated 
tank.  One  of  the  principal  advantages  of  the  air-pressure 
system  is  that  the  tank  may  be  buried  in  the  ground  or 
placed  in  the  cellar  in  a  cool  place.  The  disadvantage  is  a 
limited  capacity  for  the  cost. 

If  water  be  pumped  into  a  closed  tank  until  the  tank 
is  half  full,  the  air  contained  will  give  a  pressure  of  about 
15  pounds  a  square  inch,  which  is  sufficient  to  force  the 
water  to  a  height  of  33  feet.  Air  in  the  tank  follows  the 
well-known  law  of  gases  known  as  Boyle's  law — pressure 
X  volume  =  constant.  If  the  air  be  pumped  to  a  pressure 
of  10  pounds  before  the  introduction  of  the  water,  the 
maximum  discharge  from  the  tank  will  be  had  at  the 


2^6  FARM    MACHINERY 

common  working  pressures.  The  water  capacity  of  a 
tank  will  not  be  more  in  any  case  than  two-thirds  the 
total  capacity  of  the  tank.  As  the  water  continually  dis- 
solves a  certain  amount  of  the  air,  or,  rather,  carries  the 
air  out  with  it,  it  is  necessary  to  supply  air  to  the  tank 
from  time  to  time.  Pumps  are  now  arranged  with  an 
auxiliary  air  cylinder  to  supply  this  air. 

It  is  not  advisable  to  pump  air  to  pressure  because  it 
is  very  slow  work,  as  each  cylinderful  must  be  compressed 
before  any  is  forced  into  the  tank. 

Air-pressure  tanks  must  be  very  carefully  made,  as  air 
is  very  hard  to  contain,  much  more  difficult  than  steam. 


I 


CHAPTER  XV 

THE  VALUE  AND  CARE  OF  FARM  MACHINERY 

392.  Value  and  cost. — Few  realize  the  enormous  sums 
spent  annually  by  the  farmers  of  the  United  States  for 
machinery.  Of  the  $2,910,138,663,  the  value  of  all  crops 
raised  in  1899,  about  3.4  per  cent  was  spent  for 
machinery.  The  total  amount  of  money  invested  in  ma- 
chinery was  $749,775,970.  The  following  is  the  census 
report  of  the  value  of  machinery  manufactured  each 
census  year  since  1850: 

Year  Total  for  U.  S.  Year  Total  for  U.  S. 

1850 $6,842,611  1880 $68,640,486 

i860 20,831,904  1890 81,271,651 

1870 42,653,500  1900 101,207,428 

In  closing,  it  is  fitting  that  the  subject  of  the  care  of 
farm  machinery  be  considered,  for  one  reason  at  least. 
The  American  farmers  buy  each  year  over  $100,000,000 
worth  of  machinery,  which  is  known  to  be  used  less  effi- 
ciently than  it  should  be.  The  fact  that  farm  machinery 
is  poorly  housed  may  be  noticed  on  every  hand.  Even 
the  casual  observer  will  agree  that  if  machines  were 
housed  and  kept  in  a  better  state  of  repair  they  would 
last  much  longer  and  do  more  efficient  work.  It  has  been 
stated  by  conservative  men  that  the  average  life  of  the 
modern  binder  is  less  than  one-half  what  it  should  be. 

The  care  of  farm  machinery  readily  divides  itself  into 
three  heads:  First,  housing  or  protecting  from  the 
weather;  second,  repairing;  third,  painting. 


278  FARM    MACHINERY 

393.  Housing. — Many  instances  are  on  record  where 
farmers  have  kept  their  tools  in  constant  use  by  good  care 
for  more  than  twice  the  average  life  of  the  machine.  The 
machinery  needed  to  operate  the  modern  farm  represents 
a  large  investment  on  the  part  of  the  farmer.  This  should 
be  considered  as  capital  invested  and  made  to  realize  as 
large  a  dividend  as  possible.  The  following  is  a  list  of 
the  field  tools  needed  on  the  average  160-acre  farm  and 
their  approximate  value : 

I  grain  binder $125.00 

I   mower 45-00 

I  gang  plow 65.00 

I  walking  plow 14.00 

I  riding  cultivator 26.00 

I  walking  cultivator 16.00 

I  disk  harrow 30.00 

1  smoothing  harrow 17.00 

2  farm  wagons 150.00 

I  corn  planter 42.00 

I  seeder 28.00 

I  manure  spreader 130.00 

I  hay  loader 65.00 

I  hay  rake 26.00 

I  light  road  wagon 60.00 

I  buggy  85.00 

Total $924.00 

In  addition  to  the  above,  miscellaneous  equipment  will 
be  needed  which  will  make  the  total  over  $1,000.  If  not 
protected  from  the  weather,  this  equipment  would  not  do 
good  work  for  more  than  five  years.  If  well  housed, 
every  tool  ought  to  last  12  years  or  longer.  It  is  obvious 
that  a  great  saving  will  accrue  by  the  housing  of  the 
implements.  An  implement  house  which  will  house  these 
implements  can  be  built  for  approximately  $200,  and  it  is 


THE    VALUE    AND    CARE    OF    FARM    MACHINERY         279 

to  be  seen  that  it  would  prove  to  be  a  very  good  invest- 
ment. 

Sentiment  ought  to  be  such  that  the  man  who  does  not 
take  good  care  of  his  machinery  will  be  placed  in  the 
same  class  as  the  man  who  does  not  take  good  care  of  his 
live  stock. 

394.  Repairing. — Repairs  should  be  made  systemati- 
cally, and,  as  far  as  possible,  at  times  when  work  is  not 
rushing.  It  is  necessary  to  have  some  system  in  looking 
after  the  machines  in  order  that  when  a  machine  is  to  be 
used  it  will  be  ready  and  in  good  repair.  In  putting  a 
machine  away  after  a  season's  work,  it  is  suggested  that 
a  note  be  made  of  the  repairs  needed.  These  notes  may 
be  written  on  tags  and  attached  to  the  machine.  During 
the  winter  the  tool  may  be  taken  into  the  shop,  with 
which  every  farm  should  be  provided,  and  the  machine 
put  in  first-class  shape,  ready  to  be  used  upon  short  notice. 
It  is  often  an  advantage  not  only  in  the  choice  of  time, 
but  also  in  being  able  to  give  the  implement  agent  plenty 
of  time  in  which  to  obtain  the  repairs.  Often  repairs, 
such  as  needed,  will  have  to  come  from  the  factory,  and 
plenty  of  time  should  be  allowed. 

395.  Painting. — Nothing  adds  so  much  to  the  appear- 
ance of  a  vehicle  or  implement  as  the  finish.  An  imple- 
ment may  be  in  a  very  good  state  of  repair  and  still  give 
anything  but  that  impression,  by  the  faded  condition  of 
its  paint.  Paint  not  only  adds  to  the  appearance,  but 
also  acts  as  a  preservative  to  many  of  the  parts,  especially 
if  they  are  made  of  wood. 

As  a  rule,  hand-mixed  paints  are  the  best,  but  there 
are  good  brands  of  ready-mixed  paints  upon  the  market, 
and  they  are  more  convenient  to  use  than  the  colors  mixed 
with  oil.  It  is  the  practice  in  factories,  where  the  pieces 
are  not  too  large,  to  dip  the  entire  piece  in  a  paint  vat. 


28o 


FARM    MACHINERY 


After  the  color  coat  has  dried,  the  piece  is  striped  and 
dipped  in  the  same  way  in  the  varnish.  This  system  is 
very  satisfactory  when  a  good  quality  of  paint  is  used. 
It  is  not  possible  here  to  give  instructions  in  regard  to 
painting.  It  might  be  mentioned,  though,  that  the  sur- 
face should  in  all  cases  be  dry  and  clean  before  applying 
any  paint. 


FARM    MOTORS 

PART  II 


INTRODUCTION 

396.  Motors. — The  application  of  power  to  the  work  of 
the  farm  largely  relieves  the  farmer  from  mere  physical 
exertion,  but  demands  of  him  more  skill  and  mental  ac- 
tivity. At  the  present  time  practically  all  work  may  be 
performed  by  machines  operated  by  power  other  than 
man  power.  This  change  has  been  important  in  that  it 
has  increased  the  efficiency  and  capacity  of  one  man's 
work.  Farm  Machinery  has  been  a  discussion  of  the 
machines  requiring  power  to  operate  them,  while  Farm 
Motors  will  be  a  discussion  of  the  machines  furnishing 
the  power.  The  number  of  machines  requiring  power 
to  operate  them  is  increasing  very  rapidly.  They  re- 
quire the  farmer  to  understand  the  operation  and  care  of 
the  various  forms  of  motors  used  for  agricultural  pur- 
poses. 

397.  Energy  may  be  defined  as  the  power  of  producing 
change  of  any  kind.    It  exists  in  two  general  forms : 

1.  Potential  or  stored  energy,  an  example  of  which  is  the  energy 

contained  in  unburned  coal. 

2.  Kinetic  or  energy  of  motion,   an  example   of  which   is  the 

energy  of  a  falling  body. 

Sources  of  energy. — Following  are  some  of  the  sources 
of  energy  available  for  the  production  of  power. 


282  FARM    MOTORS 

Potential : 

1.  Fuel. 

2.  Food. 

3.  Head  of  water. 

4.  Chemical  forces. 

Kinetic  or  actual : 

1.  Air  in  motion,  or  the  wind. 

2.  The  waterfall. 

3.  Tides. 

The  energy  found  in  the  forms  just  mentioned  must 
be  converted  into  a  form  in  which  it  may  be  applied  to 
machines  for  doing  work.  This  change  of  the  energy 
from  one  form  to  another  is  spoken  of  as  the  transforma- 
tion of  energy. 

The  law  of  transformation  of  energy  holds  that  when  a 
definite  amount  of  energy  disappears  from  one  form  a 
definite  amount  appears  in  the  new  form,  or  there  is  a 
quantivalence. 

Prime  movers  are  those  machines  which  receive  energy 
directly  from  natural  sources  and  transmit  it  to  other 
machines  which  are  fitted  for  doing  the  various  kinds  of 
useful  work. 

398.  Forms  of  motors: 

1.  The  animal  body. 

2.  Heat  engines — 

Air, 

Gas  or  vapor, 

Steam, 

Solar, 

3.  Water  wheels. 

4.  Tidal  machines. 

5.  Windmills. 

6.  Electrical  motors. 

Of  the  above  all  are  prime  movers  except  the  last 
named,  the  electrical  motors,    The  energy  for  the  animal 


INTRODUCTION  283 

body  is  derived  from  the  food  eaten.  This  undergoes 
a  chemical  change  during  the  process  of  digestion  and 
assimilation,  and  is  transformed  into  mechanical  energy 
by  a  process  not  fully  understood.  Heat  engines  make 
use  of  the  heat  liberated  by  the  chemical  union  of  the 
combustible  constituents  of  fuel  and  oxygen.  Water 
wheels,  tidal  machines,  and  windmills  utilize  the  kinetic 
energy  of  masses  of  moving  water  or  air.  Electrical 
motors  depend  either  upon  chemical  action  or  a  dynamo 
to  furnish  the  energy,  it  being  necessary  to  drive  the  lat- 
ter with  some  form  of  prime  mover. 

Only  such  motors  as  are  well  adapted  to  agricultural 
purposes  will  be  considered  in  this  treatise. 


CHAPTER  XVI 
ANIMAL  MOTORS 

399.  The  animal  as  a  motor. — Although  the  animal  dif- 
fers from  other  forms  of  motors,  being  an  animated  thing, 
it  is  possible,  however,  to  consider  it  as  a  machine  in 
which  energy  in  the  form  of  food  is  transformed  into  me- 
chanical energy,  which  may  be  applied  to  the  operation 
of  various  machines.  The  animal  as  a  motor  is  excep- 
tionally interesting  to  those  who  have  made  a  study  of  the 
transformation  of  heat  energy  into  mechanical  energy, 
for  this  is  really  what  takes  place.  Combustible  matter 
in  the  form  of  grain  and  other  foods  is  consumed  with  the 
resultant  production  of  carbon  dioxide  or  other  products 
of  combustion  in  various  degrees  of  oxidation,  and,  as 
stated  before,  mechanical  energy  is  made  availabk  by 
a  process  not  clearly  understood. 

Viewed  from  the  standpoint  of  a  machine,  the  animal 
is  a  wonderful  mechanism.  Not  only  is  it  self-feeding, 
self-controlling,  self-maintaining  and  self-reproducing, 
but  at  the  same  time  is  a  very  efficient  motor.  While  the 
horse  is  like  heat  engines  in  requiring  carbonaceous  fuel, 
oxygen,  and  water  for  use  in  developing  energy,  it  is 
necessary  that  combustion  take  place  in  the  animal  body 
at  a  much  lower  temperature  than  is  possible  in  the  heat 
engine,  and  a  much  smaller  proportion  of  the  fuel  value 
is  lost  in  the  form  of  heat  while  the  work  is  being  done. 
The  animal  is  the  only  prime  mover  in  which  combustion 
takes  place  at  the  ordinary  temperature  of  98°  F.  For 
this  reason  the  animal  is  one  of  the  most  efficient  of  prime 


ANIMAL    MOTORS  285 

movers.  That  is,  a  large  per  cent  of  the  energy  repre- 
sented by  the  food  eaten  is  converted  into  work,  a  larger 
per  cent  than  is  possible  to  realize  in  most  motors.  Pro- 
fessor Atwater  in  his  recent  experiments  found  the 
average  thermodynamic  efficiency  of  man  to  be  19.6  per 
cent.  Experiments  conducted  by  the  scientist  Hirn  have 
shown  the  thermodynamic  efficiency  of  the  horse  to 
be  about  0.2.  The  best  steam  engines  give  an  efficiency 
equal  to  this,  but  the  average  is  much  below.  Internal- 
combustion  engines  will  give  a  thermal  efficiency  from  20 
to  30  per  cent. 

400.  Muscular  development. — It  is  possible  to  consider 
the  animal  as  a  motor,  but  the  animal  is  made  up  of  a 
great  number  of  systems  of  levers  and  joints,  each  sup- 
plied with  a  system  of  muscles  which  are  in  reality  the 
motors.  Muscles  exert  a  force  in  only  one  way,  and  that 
by  shortening,  giving  a  pull.  For  this  reason  muscles 
are  arranged  in  pairs,  as  illustrated  by  the  biceps  and  tri- 
ceps, which  move  the  forearm.  It  is  not  clearly  under- 
stood just  how  muscles  are  able  to  exert  forces  as  they 
do  when  stimulated  by  nerve  action.  The  theory  has 
been  advanced  that  the  shortening  of  the  muscles  is  due 
to  a  change  of  the  form  of  the  muscular  cell  from  an 
elongated  form  to  one  nearly  round,  produced  by  pressure 
obtained  in  some  way  within  the  cell  walls.  There  is  no 
doubt  but  there  is  a  transformation  of  heat  energy  into 
mechanical  energy.  While  at  work  and  producing  mo- 
tion there  is  but  little  change  in  the  temperature  of  the 
muscles,  but  when  the  muscles  are  held  in  rigid  contrac- 
tion, there  is  a  rise  in  temperature.  Another  author*  has 
likened  this  to  a  steam  plant,  which  while  at  work  con- 
verts a  large  portion  of  the  heat  generated  in  the  fire 
box  into  mechanical  energy,  but  as  soon  as  the  engine  is 
*F.  H.  King,  in  "Physics  of  Agriculture." 


286  FARM    MOTORS 

stopped  and  the  flow  of  steam  from  the  boiler  stopped 
the  temperature  rises  rapidly. 

401.  Strength  of  muscles. — All  muscles  act  through 
very  short  distances  and  upon  the  short  end  of  the  levers 
composing  the  animal  frame.  Acting  in  this  way  speed 
and  distance  are  gained  with  a  reduction  m  the  magnitude 
of  the  force.  A  striking  example  of  the  strength  of  a 
muscle  is  that  of  the  biceps.  This  muscle  acts  upon  the 
forearm,  while  at  a  right  angle  with  the  upper  arm,  as 
a  lever  of  the  second  class,  with  a  leverage  of  i  to  6.  That 
is,  the  distance  from  the  point  of  attachment  of  the  mus- 
cle to  the  elbow  is  but  one-sixth  of  the  distance  from  the 
hand  to  the  elbow.  A  man  is  able  to  hold  within  the 
hand,  with  the  forearm  horizontal,  as  explained,  a  weight 
of  50  pounds,  necessitating  an  exertion  of  a  force  of  300 
pounds  by  the  muscle.  Attention  may  also  be  called  to 
the  enormous  strength  of  muscles  of  a  horse  as  they  act 
over  the  hock  joint  while  the  horse  is  exerting  his  maxi- 
mum effort,  in  which  case  the  pull  of  the  muscles  may 
amount  to  several  thousand  pounds. 

It  is  because  muscles  are  able  to  act  only  through  very 
short  distances  that  it  is  necessary  for  them  to  act  upon 
the  short  end  of  the  levers  in  order  to  secure  the  proper 
speed  or  sufficiently  rapid  movement. 

402.  Animals  other  than  horse  and  mule  used  for 
power. — Dogs  and  sheep  are  used  to  a  very  limited  extent 
in  the  production  of  power  by  means  of  a  tread  power 
similar  to  the  one  shown  in  Fig.  200  for  horses.  These 
may  be  used  to  furnish  power  for  a  churn  or  some  other 
machine  requiring  little  power.  The  use  of  cattle  for 
power  and  draft  has  been  practically  discontinued  in 
America.  An  ox  at  work  will  travel  only  about  two- 
thirds  as  fast  as  a  horse. 

403.  Capacity. — A  man  working  a  crank  or  winch  can 


ANIMAL    MOTORS  287 

develop  power  at  his  maximum  rate.  It  is  also  possible  to 
develop  power  at  very  nearly  the  maximum  rate  while 
pumping.  A  large  man  working  at  a  winch  can  exert 
0.50  horse  power  for  two  minutes  and  one-eighth  horse 
power  by  the  hour.  It  is  stated  that  an  ox  will  develop 
only  about  two-thirds  as  much  power  as  a  horse,  owing 
to  the  fact  that  he  moves  at  a  much  slower  speed. 

404.  The  horse  is  the  only  animal  used  extensively  at 
present  as  a  draft  animal  or  for  the  production  of  power. 
As  reported  in  the  Twelfth  Census,  the  number  of  horses 
and  mules  on  the  farms  in  the  United  States  was  15.517,- 
052  and  2,759,499,  respectively,  making  a  total  of  18,- 
276,551  animals.  If  it  be  assumed  that  each  animal  de- 
velop two-thirds  horse  power,  the  combined  horse  power 
while  at  work  would  be  12,184,366,  an  excess  of  184,285 
horse  power  over  that  used  for  all  manufacturing  pur- 
poses during  the  same  year,  1900. 

From  a  consideration  of  the  skeleton  and  muscular 
development,  it  is  perceived  that  the  horse  is  an  animal 
specially  well  adapted  to  dragging  or  overcoming  hori- 
zontal resistances  rather  than  for  carrying  loads.  With 
man  it  is  different.  Although  greatly  inferior  in  weight, 
man  is  able  to  bear  a  burden  almost  as  great  as  that  of  a 
horse,  while  at  dragging  he  is  able  to  exert  only  a  small 
horizontal  effort,  even  when  the  body  is  inclined  well  for- 
ward. The  skeleton  of  man  is  composed  of  parts  super- 
imposed, forming  a  column  well  arranged  to  bear  a 
burden.  The  horse  is  able  to  draw  upon  a  cart  a 
load  many  times  his  own  weight,  while  he  is  unable  to 
carry  upon  his  back  a  load  greater  than  one-third  his 
weight. 

It  is  to  man's  interest  that  his  best  friend  in  the  brute 
world  should  be  strong,  live  a  long  life,  and  waste  none 
of  his  vital  forces.    Much  attention  has  been  given  to  the 


288  FARM    MOTORS 

development  of  breed  In  horses.  The  result  is  a  great 
improvement  in  strength,  speed,  and  beauty.  But  while 
attention  has  been  turned  to  developing  horses  capable 
of  doing  better  w^ork,  fev^  have  tried  to  improve  the  con- 
ditions under  w^hich  they  labor. 

That  the  methods  are  often  unscientific  can  be  pointed 
out.  In  England,  T.  H.  Brigg,  v^ho  has  made  a  study  of 
the  horse  as  a  motor,  and  to  v^hom  v^e  must  give  credit 
for  the  preceding  thought,  states  that  the  horse  often 
labors  under  conditions  where  50  per  cent  of  his  energy  is 
lost.  It  is  a  very  strange  thing  that  men  have  not  studied 
this  thing  more,  in  order  that  people  might  have  a  better 
understanding  of  the  conditions  under  which  a  horse 
is  required  to  labor. 

The  amount  of  resistance  which  a  horse  can  overcome 
depends  on  the  following  conditions :  First,  his  own 
weight;  second,  his  grip;  third,  his  height  and  length; 
fourth,  direction  of  trace ;  and  fifth,  muscular  develop- 
ment.   These  will  be  taken  up  in  the  above  order. 

405.  Weight. — The  heavier  the  horse,  the  more  ad- 
hesion he  has  to  the  ground.  The  tendency  is  to  lift  the 
forefeet  of  the  horse  from  the  ground  when  he  is  pulling, 
and  thus  a  heavier  horse  is  able  to  use  his  weight  to  good 
advantage.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  often  a  horse  is  able 
to  pull  a  greater  load  for  a  short  time  when  he  has  upon 
his  back  one  or  even  two  men.  Experienced  teamsters 
have  been  known  to  make  use  of  this  method  in  getting 
out  of  tight  places  with  their  loads. 

406.  Grip. — That  the  weight  adds  to  the  horse's  grip 
is  self-evident,  but  cohesion  is  not  the  same  thing  as  grip. 
Grip  is  the  hold  the  horse  is  able  to  get  upon  the  road 
surface.  It  is  plain  that  a  horse  cannot  pull  as  much 
while  standing  on  ice  as  on  solid  ground  unless  his  grip 
is  increased  by  sharp  calks  upon  his  shoes.    A  difference  is 


ANIMAL    MOTORS  289 

to  be  noticed  in  roads  in  the  amount  of  grip  which  a  horse 
may  get  upon  the  surface  while  pulling  a  heavy  load. 
Under  ordinary  circumstances  the  improved  stone  road 
will  not  provide  the  horse  with  as  good  a  grip  as  a  com- 
mon earth  road. 

407.  Height  and  length. — A  low,  rather  long-bodied 
horse  has  much  the  advantage  over  a  tall,  short  horse 
for  heavy  draft  work.     He  has  his  weight  in  a  position 


FIG,    197 — OBTAINING  THE  WORK  OF  A   HORSE  WITH   A  RECORDING 
DYNAMOMETER 

where  he  can  use  it  to  better  advantage.  It  is  an  ad- 
vantage to  have  the  horse's  weight  well  to  the  front,  since 
there  is  a  tendency,  as  mentioned  before,  to  balance  his 
weight  over  his  rear  foot  as  a  fulcrum.  Horses  heavy 
in  the  foreshoulder  have  an  advantage  in  pulling  over 
those  that  are  light,  as  weight  in  the  foreshoulder  adds 
greatly  to  the  ability  of  the  horse  to  pull.  To  prove  that 
this  is  true,  it  is  only  necessary  to  refer  to  the  fact  that 
horses  when  pulling  extend  their  heads  well  to  the  front. 
408.  Direction  of  trace. — A  heavy  load  may  be  lifted  by 
a  common  windlass  if  the  pull  be  vertical,  but  if  the  pull 
be  transferred  over  a  pulley  and  carried  off  in  a  horizontal 
direction  the  machine  must  be  fastened  or  it  will  move. 
It  must  be  staked  and  weighted  to  prevent  slipping.  This 


290  FARM    MOTORS 

same  principle  enters  into  the  discussion  of  the  draft  of  a 
horse.  As  long  as  the  trace  is  horizontal,  the  horse  has 
to  depend  upon  his  grip  and  his  weight  only  to  furnish 
enough  resistance  to  enable  him  to  pull  the  load.  But  if 
the  trace  be  lower  than  horizontal  the  tendency  is  then  to 
draw  the  horse  on  to  the  ground  and  thus  give  him 
greater  adhesion.  If  the  horse  has  sufficient  adhesion  to 
pull  a  load  without  lowering  the  trace  it  is  to  his  ad- 
vantage because  the  draft  is  often  less  in  this  case  than 
any  other. 

409.  Line  of  least  draft — When  the  road  bed  is  level 
and  hard,  the  line  of  least  draft  to  a  loaded  carriage  is 
nearly  horizontal  because  the  axle  friction  is  but  a  small 
part  of  the  weight. 


FIG,  198 


Thus  in  Fig.  198,  if  AO  represent  by  direction  and  mag- 
nitude the  weight  upon  the  axle,  and  OB  in  like  manner 
the  resistance  of  friction,  the  direction  of  the  least  force 
required  to  produce  motion  will  be  perpendicular  to  AB, 
a  line  joining  the  two  forces.  The  angle  that  the  line  of 
least  draft  makes  with  the  horizontal  is  named  in  me- 
chanics, the  angle  of  repose.  If  the  resistance  of  friction 
be  that  of  sliding  friction  and  not  that  of  axle  friction,  the 
angle  of  repose  will  be  much  greater. 


ANIMAL    MOTORS  29I 

If  the  road  surface  be  inclined,  it  will  be  found  that 
the  line  of  least  draft  is  nearly  parallel  to  the  road  surface. 
If  the  trace  is  inclined  upward  from  the  line  of  least 
draft  there  is  a  tendency  to  lift  the  load;  if  the  line  of 
draft  is  inclined  downward  there  is  a  tendency  to  press 
the  load  on  the  surface.  Furthermore,  it  is  found  that 
roads  are  not  perfectly  level  and  there  are  obstructions 
over  which  the  wheels  of  vehicles  must  pass,  or,  in  other 
words,  the  load  at  times  must  pass  up  a  much  greater  in- 
cline than  a  general  slope  indicates,  and  hence  this  calls 
for  a  greater  angle  of  trace  than  will  be  needed  for  level 
or  smooth  road.  Teamsters  find  in  teaming  over  roads 
in  one  locality  that  they  need  a  different  angle  of  trace 
than  they  find  best  in  another,  because  the  grades  of  the 
roads  are  different. 

410.  Width  of  hock. — As  mentioned  before  (405)  prac- 
tically all  of  the  pull  a  draft  horse  exerts  is  thrown  upon 
his  hind  legs  and  for  this  reason  the  form  and  strength 
of  this  part  must  be  considered  in  the  selection  of  a  horse 
for  draft  purposes.  If  the  hock  is  wide  or,  in  other  words, 
if  the  projection  of  the  heel  bone  beyond  the  joint  is 
large,  the  muscles  will  be  able  to  straighten  the  limb 
under  a  greater  pull  than  if  the  projection  is  small;  thus 
the  ability  of  the  horse  to  overcome  resistance  will  be 
increased.  Thus  there  are  many  things  to  be  considered 
in  the  selection  of  a  draft  horse.  The  general  make-up  of 
a  horse  built  for  speed  is  notably  different  from  one  built 
for  draft  purposes. 

411.  The  horse  at  work. — When  a  horse  is  required  to 
exert  the  maximum  effort,  it  is  necessary  to  add  to  his 
adhesion  or  grip  so  that  he  may  be  able  to  exert  his 
strength  to  a  limit  without  any  slipping  or  without  a 
tendency  to  slip.  But  if  the  horse  is  loaded  all  the  time, 
either  by  a  load  upon  his  back  or  a  low  hitch,  he  is  at 


2C)2  FARM    MOTORS 

times  doing  more  work  than  necessary.  In  fact,  a 
certain  amount  of  effort  is  required  for  the  horse  to 
stand  or  to  walk  even  if  he  does  no  work  at  all.  This 
has  led  men  to  think  that  if  the  hitch  could  be  so  ar- 
ranged as  to  relieve  the  horse  entirely  of  neck  weight  at 
times  or  even  raise  his  trace  the  horse  would  be  able 
to  accomplish  more  in  a  day  of  a  given  length.  In  fact, 
it  might  be  even  an  advantage  to  carry  part  of  the  weight 
of  the  horse.  Although  not  a  parallel  case,  it  is  some- 
times pointed  out  that  a  man  can  go  farther  in  a  day  when 
mounted  on  a  bicycle  than  when  walking.  Walking  in 
itself,  both  for  man  and  beast,  is  labor,  and  in  fact  walk- 
ing is  like  riding  a  wheel  polygonal  in  form,  and  each  time 
the  wheel  is  rolled  over  a  corner,  the  entire  load  must  be 
lifted  only  to  drop  again  as  the  corner  is  passed.  Whether 
or  not  there  are  any  possibilities  in  the  development  of  a 
device  along  this  line  to  conserve  the  energy  of  the  horse 
we  do  not  know;  however,  the  argument  seems  very 
good.  Mr.  Brigg,  of  England,  has  devised  an  appliance 
for  applying  to  vehicles  with  thills  which  will  in  a  meas- 
ure accomplish  the  result  referred  to ;  that  is,  the  horse  on 
beginning  to  pull  will  be  gradually  loaded  down,  thus  per- 
mitting him  to  overcome  a  greater  resistance. 

412.  Capacity  of  the  horse. — The  amount  of  work  a 
certain  horse  is  able  to  do  in  a  day  is  practically  a  con- 
stant. Large  horses  are  able  to  do  more  work  than 
smaller  ones,  but  a  given  horse  can  do  only  about  so  much 
work  in  a  day  even  if  he  is  given  a  long  or  a  short  time 
in  which  to  do  it.  Not  only  is  the  ability  to  do  work 
dependent  upon  the  size,  but  also  upon  the  natural 
strength,  breed,  health,  food,  environment,  climate,  adap- 
tation of  the  load,  and  training  of  the  horse.  A  horse 
with  maximum  load  does  minimum  work,  and  when  trav- 
eling at  maximum  speed  he  can  carry  no  load.     At  an 


ANIMAL  MOTORS  293 

Intermediate  load  and  speed  the  horse  is  able  to  do  the 
maximum  amount  of  work. 

413.  Best  conditions  for  work. — The  average  horse  will 
walk  from  2  to  2^  miles  an  hour,  and  at  the  same  time 
overcome  resistance  equal  to  about  one-tenth  or  more 
of  his  weight.  Work  may  be  performed  at  this  rate  for 
ten  hours  a  day.  Assuming  the  above  to  be  true,  a  1,500- 
pound  horse  will  perform  work  at  the  rate  of  one  horse 
power. 

As  1,500  pounds  is  much  above  the  average  weight  of 
a  farm  horse  the  average  horse  whose  weight  is  not  far 
from  1,100  will  do  continuous  work  at  the  rate  of  about 
2/3  to  4/5  horse  power. 

414.  Maximum  power  of  the  horse. — Entirely  different 
from  other  motors,  the  horse,  for  a  short  time  at  least,  is 
able  to  perform  work  at  a  very  much  increased  rate.  A 
horse  when. called  upon  may  overcome  resistance  equal 
to  one-half  his  weight,  or  even  more.  The  horse  power 
developed  will  be  as  follows,  assuming  that  he  walk  at 
the  rate  of  2^  miles  an  hour  (see  Art.  20)  : 

„  T3  1,500  X^  X  2^X5,280 

ti.  f. —  5 

33,000 

A  horse  will  be  able  to  do  work  at  this  rate  for  short 
intervals  only.  The  fact  that  a  horse  can  carry  such  a 
heavy  overload  makes  him  a  very  convenient  motor  for 
farm  purposes. 

The  maximum  effort  or  power  of  traction  of  a  horse  is 
much  greater  than  one-half  his  weight.  A  horse  weigh- 
ing 1,550  pounds  has  been  known  to  overcome,  when  pull- 
ing with  a  horizontal  trace,  a  resistance  of  1,350  pounds. 
With  the  point  of  hitch  lowered  until  the  trace  made  an 
angle  of  27°  with  the  horizontal,  the  same  horse  was  able 
to  give  a  draft  of  1,750  pounds.  It  is  believed,  however, 
that  this  horse  is  an  exception. 


294  FARM    MOTORS 

415.  Effect  of  increase  of  speed. — As  stated  before,  a 
horse  at  maximum  speed  cannot  carry  any  load,  and  as 
the  speed  is  increased  from  the  normal  draft  speed,  the 
load  must  be  decreased.  It  is  stated  that  the  amount  of 
work  a  horse  is  capable  of  doing  in  a  day  is  constant 
within  certain  limits,  varying  from  one  to  four  miles  an 
hour.    Assuming  this,  the  following  equation  holds  true : 

2j^  X  traction  at  2^  miles  =  miles  per  hour'X  traction. 

416.  Effect  of  the  length  of  working  day. — Within 
certain  limits  the  traction  a  horse  is  able  to  exert  varies 
inversely  with  the  number  of  hours.  When  the  speed  re- 
mains constant  the  traction  may  be  determined  approxi- 
mately by  the  following  equation,  provided  the  length  of 
day  is  kept  between  five  and  ten  hours. 

10  hours  X  i/io  weight  of  horse  =  number  of  hours  X  traction. 

417.  Division  of  work. — It  may  not  be  absolutely  true 
that  the  ability  of  a  horse  to  do  work  depends  largely 
upon  his  weight,  nevertheless  it  is  not  far  from  correct. 
It  is  not  advisable  to  work  horses  together  when  differing 
much  in  size,  but  it  is  often  necessary  to  do  so.  When 
this  is  done  the  small  horse  should  be  given  the  ad- 
vantage. In  determining  the  amount  of  the  entire  load 
each  horse  should  pull  when  hitched  to  an  evener  it  may 
be  considered  a  lever  of  the  second  class ;  the  clevis  pin 
of  one  horse  acting  as  the  fulcrum.  From  the  law  of  me- 
chanics (see  Art.  24)  : 

Power  X  power  arm  =  weight  X  weight  arm. 

Example:  Suppose  two  horses  weighing  1,500  and 
1,200  pounds  respectively  are  to  work  together  on  an 
evener  or  doubletree  40  inches  long.  If  each  is  to  do  a 
share  of  the  work  proportionately  to  his  weight,  it  will  be 
possible  to  substitute  their  combined  weight  for  the  total 


ANIMAL    MOTORS 


295 


draft  and  the  weight  of  the  larger  horse  for  his  share  of 
the  draft  in  the  general  equation  and  consider  the  smaller 
horse  hitched  at  the  fulcrum  : 

2,700  X  long  arm  of  evener  =  1,500  X  40i 

,  -  60,000  ,    .     , 

long  arm  of  evener  = =22  2/9  mches, 

2,700 

short  arm  of  evener  ;=  40  —  22  2/9  —  17  7/9. 

That  is,  to  divide  the  draft  proportionately  to  the  weights  of  tht 

horses,  the  center  hole  must  be  placed  22/9  inches  from  the  center 

toward  the  end  upon  which  the  heavy  horse  is  to  pull. 


FIG.    200 — TREAD    POWER    FOR   THREE    HORSES 

418.  The  tread  power. — The  tread  power  consists  in 
an  endless  inclined  plane  or  apron  carried  over  rollers 


296  FARM    MOTORS 

and  around  a  cylinder  at  each  end  of  a  platform.  Power 
is  derived  from  a  pulley  placed  upon  a  shaft  passing 
through  one  of  the  cylinders.  Fig.  200  illustrates  a  tread 
power  for  three  horses  with  the  horses  at  work.  Some 
aprons  are  made  in  such  a  way  that  each  slat  has  a  level 
face.  This  tread  is  thought  to  enable  the  horse  to  do  his 
work  with  less  fatigue  because  his  feet  are  more  nearly  in 
their  normal  attitude. 

Owing  to  the  large  number  of  bearings,  the  matter  of 
lubrication  is  an  important  feature  in  the  operation  of  a 
tread  power.  Lubrication  should  be  as  nearly  perfect  as 
possible  in  order  that  little  work  will  be  lost  in  friction 
and  the  efficiency  of  the  machine  may  be  increased.  The 
bearings  should  not  only  have  due  provision  for  oiling, 
but  they  must  be  so  constructed  that  they  will  exclude 
all  dirt  and  grit. 

419.  The  work  of  a  horse  in  a  tread  power. — A  horse  at 
work  in  a  tread  power  lifts  his  weight  up  an  incline 
against  the  force  of  gravity.  The  amount  of  work  ac- 
complished depends  upon  the  steepness  of  the  incline  and 
the  rate  the  horse  travels.  If  the  incline  has  a  rise  of  2 
feet  in  8,  the  horse  must  lift  one-fourth  of  his  weight, 
which  is  transmitted  to  the  apron  and  travels  at  the  same 
rate  the  horse  walks.  Working  a  1,000-pound  horse  in  a 
tread  power  with  a  slope  of  i  to  4  is  equal  to  a  pull  of 
250  pounds  by  the  horse.  This  is  much  greater  than  is 
ordinarily  required  of  a  horse,  but  it  is  not  uncommon  to 
set  the  tread  power  with  this  slope.  If  a  horse  weighs 
1,600  pounds  and  walks  at  the  rate  of  two  miles  an  hour, 
work  will  be  done  at  the  rate  of  2.13  H.P.  At  the  same 
speed  a  1,000-pound  horse  will  do  1.33  H.P.  of  work. 

It  is  often  true  that  a  horse  will  be  able  to  develop  much 
more  power  when  worked  in  a  tread  power  than  when 
worked  in  a  sweep  power,  but  he  will  be  overworked. 


ANIMAL  MOTORS 


297 


Often  horses  are  overworked  in  tread  powers  without  the 
owner  intending  to  do  so,  or  even  knowing  it. 


FIG.   20 


420.  Sweep  powers. — In  the  sweep  power  the  horses 
travel  in  a  circle,  and  the  power  is  transmitted  from  the 
master  wheel  through  suitable  gearing  to  the  tumbling 
rod,  which  transmits  the  power  to  the  machinery.  Sweep 
powers  vary  in  size  from  those  for  one  horse  to  those 
for  14  horses.  Attention  is  often  called  to  the  fact  that  a 
considerable  part  of  the  draft  is  lost  because  the  line  of 
draft  cannot  be  at  right  angles  to  a  radius  of  the  circle 
in  which  the  horse  walks.  For  this  reason  a  considerable 
portion  of  the  draft  is  lost  in  producing  pressure  toward 
the  center  of  the  power,  often  adding  to  the  friction.  The 
larger  the  circle  in  which  the  horse  travels,  the  more 
nearly  the  line  of  draft  will  be  at  right  angles  to  a  radius 
to  the  center  of  the  circle. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

WINDMILLS 

If  the  horse  is  excepted,  the  windmill  was  the  first  kind 
of  a  motor  used  to  relieve  the  farmer  of  physical  exertion 
and  increase  his  capacity  to  do  work.  With  the  exception 
of  the  horse,  the  windmill  is  still  the  most  extensively 
used.  To  prove  that  the  windmill  is  an  important  farm 
motor,  it  is  only  necessary  to  cite  the  fact  that  many 
thousand  are  manufactured  and  sold  each  year. 

421.  Early  history — Prof.  John  Beckmann,  in  his  "History  of 
Inventions  and  Discoveries,"  has  given  everything  of  special  interest 
pertaining  to  the  early  history  of  the  windmill.  As  it  is  conceded 
by  all  that  his  work  is  exhaustive,  the  following  notes  of  interest 
have  been  taken  from  it.  Prof.  Beckmann  believes  that  the  Romans 
had  no  windmills,  although  Pomponius  Sabinus  affirms  so.  He 
also  considers  as  false  the  account  given  by  an  old  Bohemian  annal- 
ist, who  says  that  before  718  there  were  windmills  nowhere  but  in 
Bohemia,  and  that  water  mills  were  then  introduced  for  the  first 
time.  Windmills  were  known  in  Europe  before  or  about  the  first 
crusade.  Mabillon  mentions  a  diploma  of  1105  in  which  a  convent 
in  France  is  allowed  to  erect  water  wheels  and  windmills.  In  the 
twelfth  century  windmills  became   more  common. 

422.  Development  of  the  present-day  windmill.— It  was  about 
the  twelfth  century  that  the  Hollanders  put  into  use  the  noted 
Dutch  mill.  These  people  used  their  mills  for  pumping  water  from 
the  land  behind  the  dikes  into  the  sea.  Their  mills  were  constructed 
by  having  four  sweeps  extending  from  a  common  axle,  and  to  these 
sweeps  were  attached  cross  pieces  on  which  was  fastened  canvas. 
The  first  mills  were  fastened  to  the  tower,  so  that  when  the  direc- 
tion of  the  wind  changed  the  owner  would  have  to  go  out  and 
swing  the  entire  tower  around ;  later  they  fastened  them  so  that  only 
the  top  of  the  tower  turned,  and  in  some  of  the  better  mills  they 
were  so  arranged  that  a  smaller  mill  was  used  to  swing  the  wheel 
to  the  wind.  The  turning  of  the  tower  was  no  small  matter  when 
one  learns  that  some  of  these  mills  were  140  feet  in  diameter. 


WINDMILLS  299 

John  Burnham  is  said  to  be  the  inventor  of  the  American  wind- 
mill. L.  H.  Wheeler,  an  Indian  missionary,  patented  the  Eclipse 
in  1867.  The  first  steel  mill  was  the  Aermotor,  invented  by  T.  O. 
Perry  in   1883. 

The  windmills  still  most  common  in  Europe  are  of  the  Dutch 
type,  with  their  four  long  arms  and  canvas  sails.  These  sails 
usually  present  a  warped  surface  to  the  wind.  The  degree  of  the 
angle  of  the  sails  with  the  plane  of  rotation,  cailled  the  angle  of 
weather,  is  about  7°  at  the  outer  end  and  about  18°  at  the  inner. 
The  length  of  the  sails  is  usually  about  5/6  the  length  of  the  arms, 
the  width  of  the  outer  end  1/3  the  length,  and  the  width  of  the 
inner  end  1/5  the  length.  It  is  seen  that  the  total  projected  area 
of  sails  is  very  small  compared  to  the  wind  area  or  zone  carrying 
the  sails.  Quite  often  these  wheels  are  120  feet  in  diameter  and  occa- 
sionally 140  feet.  In  comparing  these  mills  with  the  close,  compact 
types  of  American  makes  a  very  great  contrast  is  to  be  drawn. 

Among  the  men  who  have  done  the  most  experimenting  in 
windmill  lines  are  Smeaton,  Coulomb,  Perry,  Griffith,  King,  and 
Murphy.  The  names  are  given  in  order  of  date  of  experimenting. 
The  more  prominent  among  these  are  Smeaton,  Perry,  and  Murphy. 
Probably  Perry  did  more  for  the  windmill  than  any  of  the  others. 
Prof.  E.  H.  Barbour  is  noted  for  his  designs  and  work  with  home- 
made windmills. 

423.  Home-made  windmills. — Professor  Barbour  made 
an  extensive  study  of  home-made  windmills  and  has  had 
a  very  interesting  bulletin  published  on  the  subject.  He 
has  classified  them  as  follows : 

1.  Jumbos  (Fig.  202).     This  type  consists  of  a  large  fan- wheel 

placed  in  a  box  so  the  wind  acts  on  the  upper  fans  only. 

2.  Merry-go-rounds.     Merry-go-round  mills  are  those  in  which 

the  fans  in  turning  toward  the  wind  are  turned  edgewise. 

3.  Battle-ax  mills  (Fig.  203).    These  are  mills  made  with  fans  of 

such  a  shape  as  to  suggest  a  battle-ax. 

4.  Holland  mills.    Somewhat  resembling  the  old  Dutch  mill. 

5.  Mock  turbines  (Fig.  204).    Resembling  the  shop-made  mill. 

6.  Reconstructed  turbines  (Fig.  205).     Shop-made  mills  rebuilt. 

These  mills,  although  of  low  power,  are  used  exten- 
sively in  the  West  Central  States.    Most  of  them  are  fixed 


300 


FARM    MOTORS 


in  their  position  and  consequently  have  full  power  only 
when  the  wind  is  in  the  direction  for  which  they  are  set. 
In  those  States  in  which  these  mills  are  used  the  wind 


FIG.    202 — HOME-MADE    JUMBO 

has  the  prevailinj^  directions  of  south  and  northwest,  and 
for  that  reason  the  mills  are  generally  set  a  trifle  to  the 
west  of  north. 

To  the  casual  observer  the  Jumbo  mill  (Fig-.  202)  seems 
a  very  feasible  means  of  obtaining  power,  but  when  one 
considers  the  massiveness  of  the  whole  affair  and  that 
only  one-half  of  the  sails  is  exposed  to  the  wind  at  one 
time,  also  that  full  power  is  developed  from  the  wind  only 
when  the  latter  is  in  the  proper  direction,  it  will  immedi- 
ately be  seen  that  only  in  cases  of  dire  necessity  should 
one  waste  much  time  with  them. 


WINDMILLS 


301 


The  cost  of  this  type  of 
mill  is  very  slight.  It  is 
stated  by  Professor  Bar- 
bour that  a  gardener  near 
Bethany,  Nebraska,  con- 
structed one  which  cost 
only  $8  for  new  material, 
and  with  this  he  irrigates 
six  acres  of  vegetables. 
If  the  water-storage  ca- 
pacity for  such  mills  is 
enough,  they  will  often 
furnish  sufficient  water 
for  50  head  of  stock.  One 
farmer  has  built  a  gang  of 
Jumbo  mills  into  the  cone 
of  a  double  corn  crib  and 
connected  them  to  a  small 
sheller. 

The  Merry-go-round  is 
not  nearly  as  popular  as 
tjie  Jumbo,  in  that  it  is 
very  much  harder  to  build 
and  the  only  advantage  it 
has  over  the  latter  is  that 
a  vane  may  be  attached 
in  such  a  manner  that  the  wind  wheel  is  kept  in  the  wind. 

In  some  parts  of  Kansas  and  in  several  localities  of 
Nebraska  the  Battle-ax  mill  is  used  probably  more  than 
any  other  type  of  home-made  mill.  The  stock  on  large 
ranches  is  watered  by  using  such  mills  for  pumping  pur- 
poses. Where  one  has  not  sufficient  power,  two  are  used. 
The  cheapness  of  these  mills  is  a  consideration ;  very  sel- 
dom do  they  cost  more  than  $1.50  outside  of  what  can  be 


FIG.   203.— BATTLE-AX   WINDMILL 


302 


FARM    MOTORS 


FIG.  204 — MOCK  TURBINE  WINDMILL 

picked  up  around  the  farm.  The  axle  can  be  made  of  a 
pole  smoothed  up  at  the  ends  for  bearings,  or  a  short  rod 
can  be  driven  in  at  each  end.  The  tower  can  be  made  of 
three  or  four  poles  and  the  sails  of  pole  cross  pieces  and 
old  boxes.  One  of  these  mills  10  feet  in  diameter  will 
pump  water  for  75  head  of  cattle.  Near  Verdon,  Nebraska, 
a  farmer  uses  one  of  these  mills  in  the  summer  to  pump  water 
for  irrigation,  and  in  the  winter  for  sawing  wood. 

424.    Turbine   windmills. — The  term  windmills  as  it  is 
commonly    used    refers    only    to    the    American    type    of 


WINDMILLS 


303 


y 


FIG.    205 — ^RECONSTRUCTED 
TURBINE 


shop-made  mills.  They  may 
be  classified  by  the  form  of 
the  wheel  and  the  method  of 
governing. 

1.  Sectional   wheel  with  centrif- 

ugal governor  and  independ- 
ent rudder  (Fig.  206). 

2.  The  solid-wheel  mill  with  side- 

vane  governor  and  inde- 
pendent rudder  (Fig.  207). 

3.  Solid   wheel   with  single  rud- 

der. Regulation  depends  upon 
the  fact  that  the  wheel  tends 
to  go  in  the  direction  it 
turns.  To  aid  in  governing, 
the  rudder  is  often  placed 
outside  of  the  center  line  of 
wheel  shaft  (Fig.  208). 

4.  Solid  or  sectional  wheel  with  no  rudder  back  of  tower,  the  pres- 

sure of  the  wind  being  depended  upon  to  keep  the  mill  square 
with  the  direction  of  the  wind.  Regulation  is  accomplished  with 
a  centrifugal  governor  (Fig.  209). 

425.  The  use  of  the  windmill. — The  windmill  receives 
its  power  from  the  kinetic  energy  of  the  moving  atmos- 
phere. Since  this  is  supplied  without  cost,  the  power 
furnished  by  a  windmill  must  be  very  cheap,  the  entire 
cost  being  that  of  interest  on  the  cost  of  plant,  deprecia- 
tion and  maintenance.  Where  power  is  wanted  in  small 
units  the  windmill  is  a  very  desirable  motor,  provided — 

1.  The  nature  of  the  work  is  such  as  to  permit  of  a  suspension 

during  a  calm,   as  pumping  water   and  grinding  feed. 

2.  Some  form  of  power  storage  may  be  used. 

426.  Wind  wheels. — T.  O.  Perry  built  a  frame  on  the  end 
of  a  sweep  which  revolved  in  an  enclosed  room  in  such 
a  manner  that  he  could  fasten  different  wheels  on  it  with- 
out niaking  any  change  in  the  mechanism.    By  this  means 


304 


FARM    MOTORS 


he  was  able  to  make  very  exhaustive  experiments  with- 
out being  retarded  by  atmospheric  conditions.    He  made 


FIG.    206 — SECTIONAL    WHEEL    WITH    (  KNTKIFUGAL    GOVERNOR    AND 
INDEPENDENT  RUDDER 

tests  with  over  60  different  forms  of  wheels,  and  it  was 
the  result  of  these  experiments  which  brought  out  the 
steel  wheel.  From  Mr.  Perry  we  learn  that  in  wood  wheels 
the  best  angle  of  weather  is  about  30°,  and  that  there 
should  be  a  space  of  about  one-eighth  the  width  of  the  sail 
between  the  sails.  By  angle  of  weather  is  meant  the 
angle  made  by  the  blade  and  the  plane  normal  or  perpen- 
dicular to  the  direction  of  the  wind.     With  the  tower  in 


WINDMILLS 


305 


FIG.      207 — SOLID-WHEEL      MILL      WITH 
SIDE-VANE  GOVERNOR  AND  INDE- 
PENDENT  RUDDER 


fig,  208 — solid  wheel  with 
sinc:le  kuijder 


FARM    MOTORS 


FIG.    209. — SECTIONAL    WHEEL    WITH    NO    RUDDER 


front  of  the  wheel  there  is  a  loss  of  efficiency  of  about 
14  per  cent;  with  it  behind  the  wheel  there  is  a  loss  of  only 
about  7  per  cent. 

427.  Regulation. — Wind  wheels  of  this  country  are 
made  to  regulate  themselves  automatically,  and  by  this 
means  of  regulation  they  do  not  attain  a  very  high  rate 
of  speed,  nearly  all  of  them  cutting  themselves  out  when 
the  wind  has  reached  a  velocity  of  about  25  miles  an  hour. 
This  is  principally  due  to  the  fact  that  our  mills  are  gen- 
erally made  for  pumping  purposes  and  the  pumps  do  not 
work  well  when  the  number  of  strokes  becomes  too  great. 
It  is  for  this  reason  that  the  direct-connected  wooden 
wheels  do  not  give  as  much  power  as  the  back-geared 
Steel  wheels.     As  a  result  of  the   wind  wheels  being 


WINDMILLS  307 

thrown  partially  out  of  gear  when  the  wind  velocity  is 
only  about  25  miles  an  hour,  many  wheels  are  kept  from 
doing  the  amount  of  work  which  they  might  be  able  to 
do.  Any  mill  should  stand  a  velocity  of  at  least  40  miles 
an  hour.  It  is  understood  that  as  the  wind  increases,  the 
strain  on  the  working  parts  decreases.  For  any  given 
velocity  of  wind  the  speed  of  the  wheel  should  not  change, 
but  the  load  should  be  so  arranged  that  the  work  can  be 
done  to  suit  the  wind. 

428.  The  efficiency  of  a  wind  wheel  is  very  greatly  af- 
fected by  the  diameter.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  wind 
is  not  the  same  in  any  two  places  on  the  wheel.  The 
smaller  the  wheel,  the  greater  efficiency.  Experiments 
were  attempted  to  get  the  efficiency  of  a  22-foot  wheel, 
but  because  the  wind  did  not  blow  at  the  same  velocity 
on  any  two  parts  of  the  wheel  they  were  given  up. 

429.  Gearing. — At  one  time  the  wind  wheel  seemed  to 
be  the  most  vital  part  of  a  windmill,  but  from  the  results 
of  tests  and  experiments  this  belief  has  been  obliterated, 
and  now  the  vital  part  seems  to  be  the  gearing.  On  all 
the  old  standard  makes  the  gearing  seems  to  be  as  good 
as  ever,  even  if  the  mills  have  run  for  several  years. 
However,  on  the  new  designs,  and  this  is  mostly  the  steel 
mill,  the  gears  are  wearing  out.  The  fault  lies  with  no 
one  but  the  manufacturers.  Competition  has  been  so 
strong  that  they  have  reduced  the  cost  of  manufacture  at 
the  expense  of  wearing  parts.  For  this  reason  the  steel 
wheel,  which  is  far  the  more  powerful,  is  going  out  of 
use  in  some  localities,  and  the  old  makes  of  wooden 
wheels  are  coming  back. 

In  direct-connected  mills  the  main  bearings  should  be 
long  and  so  placed  that  they  will  carry  the  wheels  in 
good  shape,  and  the  guide  should  be  heavy  and  designed 
so  that  it  can  be  lubricated  easily.    The  bumper  spring 


308  FARM    MOTORS 

should  be  well  placed,  not  too  close  in,  so  that  as  the 
wheel  is  thrown  out  of  the  wind  there  is  not  too  much 
jar.  Rubber  should  never  be  used  for  this  spring,  as  the 
continual  use  and  exposure  to  the  weather  will  cause  it 
to  harden  or  flatten  so  that  it  is  of  no  use.  Generally 
weights  are  better  to  hold  the  wheel  in  the  wind  than 
springs. 

In  support  of  back  or  forward  geared  mills  there  is  not 
much  more  to  say  than  has  been  said  about  direct  con- 
nected. The  most  vital  parts  of  these  mills  other  than 
named  above  are  the  gearings.  They  must  be  well  set 
and  well  designed  so  that  when  they  wear  there  is  not 
a  very  great  chance  for  them  to  slip. 

430.  Power  of  windmills. — Probably  there  is  no  other 
prime  mover  which  has  so  many  variables  depending 
upon  it  as  the  windmill,  when  we  undertake  to  compute 
the  power  by  mathematical  means.  It  is  also  hard  to 
distinguish  between  the  greatest  and  the  least  of  these 
variables,  so  the  author  gives  them  promiscuously.  Vari- 
able velocity  of  wind  ;  velocity  greater  on  one  side  of 
wheel  than  on  the  other;  angle  of  weather  of  the  sails; 
thickness  of  sails;  width  of  sails;  number  of  sails;  length 
of  sails ;  obstruction  of  tower  either  behind  or  in  front 
of  wheel ;  diameter  of  wheel ;  velocity  of  sails ;  variation 
of  load,  and  location  and  height  of  tower.  In  all  the  tests 
of  windmills  which  have  been  carefully  and  completely 
carried  out  it  is  shown  that  as  the  wind  velocity  increases 
or  decreases  the  load  should  increase  or  decrease  accord- 
ingly; as  the  velocity  of  the  wheels  increases,  the  angle 
of  weather  should  decrease,  and  vice  versa.  Wide  sails 
give  more  power  and  a  greater  efficiency  than  narrow 
sails. 

A.  R.  Wolff  gives  the  following  table  as  results  for 
wood-wheel  mills: 


WINDMILLS 

309 

11 

=1 

0.^ 

Gallons  of  Water  raised  per 

Minute  to 

an  Elevation  of 

OuJ* 

w^ 

«o 

a  > 

25'                 50' 

75' 

100' 

iSc/ 

20c/ 

Q 

lo' 

60-65 

19.2                9.6 

6.6 

4-7 

0.12 

12' 

55-60 

33-9              17.9 

11.8 

8.5 

5-7 

0.21 

14' 

50-55 

45.1              22.6 

15.3 

II. 2 

7.8 

5-0 

0.28 

1 6' 

45-50 

64.6             31.6 

19.5 

16.1 

9.8 

8.0 

0.41 

18' 

40-45 

97.7              52.2 

32-5 

24.4 

17-5 

12.2 

0.61 

20' 

35-40 

124.9              63.7 

40.8 

31.2 

19-3 

159 

0.78 

25' 

30-35 

212.4            107.0 

71.6 

49.7 

37-3 

26.7 

1-34 

The  above  table  is  given  where  the  wind  velocity  is 
such  that  the  mill  makes  the  number  of  revolutions  a 
minute  given ;  of  course,  if  the  velocity  increases,  the 
R.P.M.  will  increase  likewise  and  consequently  the 
power. 

Smeaton  drew  from  his  experiments  that  the  power  in- 
creases as  the  cube  of  the  wind  velocity  and  as  the  square 
of  the  diameter  of  the  wheel.  Murphy  did  not  check  this 
result,  but  found  that  the  power  increases  as  the  squares 
of  the  velocity  and  as  about  1.25  of  the  diameter  of  the 
wheel.  This  latter  conclusion  is  probably  the  more  re- 
liable, as  the  instruments  which  Smeaton  used  were  more 
crude  than  those  of  Murphy.  The  former  determined 
the  velocity  of  the  wind  by  taking  the  time  which  it  would 
take  a  feather  to  travel  from  one  point  to  another  as  the 
velocity.    The  latter  used  a  Thompson  anemometer. 

431.  Tests  of  mills. — The  following  tests  were  made  by 
E.  C.  Murphy  to  determine  what  windmills  actually  did 
in  the  field,  also  to  see  whether  mills  in  practice  carried 
cut  the  rules  made  by  previous  experimenters.  Perry 
found  by  his  experiments  in  a  closed  room  that  the  power 
of  a  wheel  increases  as  the  cube  of  the  velocity,  while 
Murphy  found  that  it  varied  from  this. 

It  will  be  noticed  from  the  following  table  that  some 
steel  wheels  as  well  as  wooden  gave  much  more  power 


3IO 

FARM    MOTORS 

Name 

Kind 

Diameter 

in 

Feet 

Number 
Sails 

Angle  of 
Weather 

Velocity 
of  Wind 
in  Miles 
per  Hour 

Horse 
Power 

Monitor 

Wood 

12 

96 

34° 

20 

.357 

Challenge 

« 

14 

102 

39° 

20 

.420 

Irrigator 

i( 

l6 

10 

39° 

20 

.400 

Althouse 

(• 

l6 

130 

32° 

20 

.600 

Halliday* 

u 

22.5 

144-100 

25° 

20 

.890 

Aermotor 

Steel 

12 

18 

31° 

20 

1.050 

Ideal 

t( 

12 

21 

32° 

20 

.606 

Junior  Ideal      " 

14 

24 

29° 

20 

.610 

Perkins 

tt 

14 

32 

31° 

20 

.609 

Aermotor 

(( 

i6 

18 

30° 

20 

1530 

*This  wheel  was  made  up  of  two  concentric  circles  of  sails,  the  outer  having 
144  sails  and  the  inner   lop. 

than  others.  This  is  due  to  workmanship  and  angle  of 
weather. 

It  is  very  clearly  shown  that  the  steel  wheel  is  much 
more  powerful  than  the  wooden. 

Another  important  factor  noticed  from  the  above  table 
is  that  the  16-foot  mill  develops  only  about  50  per  cent 
more  power  than  the  12-foot,  Taking  the  shipping 
weights  of  the  12-foot  and  16-foot  mills  with  50-foot  steel 
towers,  it  is  found  that  they  are  about  2,000  pounds  and 
4,200  pounds,  respectively,  and  since  a  16-foot  mill  is 
much  more  liable  to  be  damaged  by  a  storm  than  a  12- 
foot,  it  is  better  in  a  great  many  cases  to  put  up  two 
12-foot  mills  instead  of  one  16-foot. 

Mr.  Murphy  made  tests  of  a  Little  Jumbo  mill  7^ 
feet  in  diameter  with  eight  sails,  each  11X16  feet,  and 
found  that  in  a  20-mile  wind  he  got  0.082  H.P.  and  in  a 
25-mile  wind  he  got  o.ioo  H.P.  He  also  made  tests  of  a 
Little  Giant  mill  and  by  computation  found  that  the  lat- 
ter mill,  having  the  same  dimensions  as  the  former,  would 
start  in  a  slovv^er  wind  and  when  at  full  speed  would 
develop  about  2.5  times  as  much  power.     Other  advan- 


WINDMILLS 


3" 


tag-es  of  this  mill  over  the  former  are  that  it  is  always 
in  the  wind  and  is  much  less  liable  to  be  injured  by 
storms. 

By  a  comparison  of  tables  from  different  manufacturers 
of  windmills  the  following  table  has  been  compiled  of  the 
size  of  steel  windmills  required  for  various  lifts  and  size 
of  cylinder.  Although  it  cannot  be  said  that  the  table  is 
accurate,  it  conforms  very  closely  to  the  general  practice. 


"2 

u 

u 

^ 

u 

hi 

c 

V 

V 

u 

V 

V 

'^ 

-o 

a 

t3 

>li 

T3 

<*i 

"O 

^ 

•0 

*j 

c 

s 

C 

•"i 

c 

c 

•— 

s 

'ts 

^ 

'■n 

iJ 

•-] 

.s 

hJ 

1-1 

•S 

o 

<<-■ 

>. 

>«4 

">> 

<M 

"^^ 

«*- 

">. 

<M 

^ 

>, 

^-g 

o 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

U 

0 

V 

1 

1) 

J3 

0 

1 

N 

'v 

N 

■« 

N 

« 

N 

V 

N 

0 

K 

> 

•^"' 

X 

m 

ffi 

W 

s 

w 

s 

W 

w 

6 

2" 

loo' 

3" 

50' 

4" 

25' 

8 

a 

loo' 

aH" 

ICXJ' 

3" 

75' 

4" 

35' 

lO 

a" 

300' 

2^" 

200' 

3" 

».so' 

4" 

70' 

12 

a 

500' 

2.^" 

375' 

3" 

250' 

a" 

12s' 

i6 

a^" 

800' 

3" 

500' 

3%" 

400' 

4" 

300' 

5" 

200' 

ao 

3^' 

800' 

4^" 

500' 

s" 

400' 

7" 

200' 

8" 

'35' 

The  above  table  is  for  mills  back-geared  about  10  to  3. 
Since  wood-wheel  mills  are  generally  direct-stroke,  they 
require  a  much  larger  wheel  to  accomplish  the  same  work 
as  the  steel  wheels. 

432.  Towers. — The  Hollanders  built  their  towers  in 
the  form  of  a  building  which  either  had  a  revolving  roof 
or  the  tower  itself  revolved.  Within  the  tower  they  kept 
mills  and  grain.  Often  to-day  we  see  the  towers  of 
American  mills  housed  in  a  similar  way,  with  the  excep- 
tion that  they  do  not  revolve.  This  is  not  an  economical 
way  of  providing  room,  for  it  requires  much  more  ma- 
terial in  the  construction  than  a  low  building  does  to 
withstand  the  excessive  wind  pressure  which  it  receives. 

Since  the  top  of  the  tower  vibrates  greatly,  the  tower 
needs  to  be  very  stiff.    Probably  a  wood  tower  is  stiffer 


312 


FARM    MOTORS 


FIG.  210 — DIMENSIONS  FOR  5O-FOOT  TOWER 


WINDMILLS 


313 


than  steel  when  new,  but  owing  to  the  variation  in  wind 
velocity  and  direction  it  is  only  a  short  time  before  the 
continual  vibration  has  worked  the  tower  loose  at  all 
joints  and  splices.  At  every  joint  in  the  wood  tower 
there  is  a  chance  for  the  rain  to  run  in  and  cause  decay. 
Therefore  as  an  offset  to  the  greater  rigidity  of  the  wood 
tower  one  must  consider  the  time  for  tightening  bolts, 
labor  for  painting,  and  money  for  replacing  the  tower 
every  few  years. 

Steel  towers,  as  a  rule,  are  not  as  rigid  when  new  as 
the  wood,  but  they  do  not  present  as  great  a  surface  to 
the  wind  as  the  latter,  and  since  all  parts  are  metal 
there  is  no  chance  for  a  loosening  of  the  joints.  The 
steel  tower  not  only  saves  all  of  the  labor  and  expense 
required  to  keep  the  wooden  tower  in  repair,  but  it  is 
practically  indestructible. 

In  a  cyclone  the  steel  tower  will  often  become  twisted 
before  the  wooden  one  will  be  broken.  However,  the 
latter  will  generally  become  so  racked  and  splintered  that 
it  cannot  be  repaired. 

433.  Anchor  posts  can  be  made  by  setting  strong  fence 
posts  in  the  ground  their  full  length  and  nailing  some 
strips  across  them  to  hold  beneath  the  earth ;  but  a  bet- 
ter method  is  to  insert  an  angle  iron  in  a  concrete  base, 
which  will  support  the  tower  posts.  The  dimensions  of 
the  base  should  be  about  18  X  18  inches  X  4  feet  for 
small  mills,  and  proportionally  larger  for  large  mills. 

434.  Erecting  mills. — Windmills  over  60  feet  high 
should  be  assembled  piece  by  piece,  but  low  towers  can 
be  assembled  on  the  ground,  including  windmill  head, 
sails,  and  vanes,  then  raised  in  a  manner  similar  to  Fig. 
211.  After  the  tower  has  been  raised  it  should  be  exam- 
ined and  all  braces  and  stays  given  the  same  tension 
and  all  nuts  tightened.     It  is  also  well  before  the  pump 


314 


FARM    MOTORS 


rod  is  put  in  place  to  drop  a  plumb  bob  from  the  center 
of  the  top  of  the  tower  to  the  intersection  of  cords 
stretched  diagonally  from  the  corners  of  the  tower  at 


FIG.  211 — PRAISING  A  TOWER 

the  base.  If  the  plumb  bob  does  not  fall  on  this  inter- 
section, either  the  braces  do  not  have  equal  tension  or 
the  anchor  posts  are  not  level. 

435.  Economic  considerations  of  windmills. — Many- 
manufacturers  claim  much  more  power  than  the  wind- 
mills really  develop.  This  erroneous  claim  is  probably 
due  to  the  fact  that  early  experimenters  worked  with 
small  wheels  and  figured  the  power  of  larger  ones  from 
the  law  of  cubes,  which  does  not  seem  to  hold  true  in 
actual  practice.  It  is  wrong  to  say  that  a  good  12- 
foot  steel  mill  will  furnish  i  H.P.  in  a  20-mile  wind  and 
that  a  good  16-foot  mill  will  furnish  1.5  H.P. 

The  economic  value  of  a  windmill  depends  upon  its 
first  cost,  its  cost  of  repairs,  and  its  power.  The  com- 
petition in  manufacture  at  present  is  so  great  that  often 
the  initial  cost  is  kept  down  at  the  expense  of  the  other 
two. 

A  mill  should  have  as  few  moving  parts  as  possible. 
The  power  of  a  mill  is  so  small  that  if  there  is  much  to 
retard  its  action  there  will  be  very  little  power  left 
for  use. 


WINDMILLS  315 

In  power  mills  very  often  the  shafting  is  much  heavier 
than  need  be.  This  is  probably  due  to  the  fact  that  the 
mill  was  designed  for  much  more  power  than  it  will 
actually  develop.  Often  poor  workmanship  in  manufac- 
ture as  well  as  in  erection  is  the  cause  of  so  many  mills 
having  such  small  power. 

Trees,  buildings,  and  embankments  cause  the  wind 
velocity  to  be  so  variable  that  for  good  work  it  is  de- 
sirable that  the  wind  wheel  be  placed  at  least  30  feet 
above  all  obstructions.  This  would  cause  the  towers  to 
be  at  least  60  or  70  feet  high.  It  is  better  to  put  a  small 
wheel  on  a  high  tower  than  a  large  wheel  on  a  low  tower. 
An  8-foot  wheel  on  a  70-foot  tower  will  probably  do  more 
work  in  a  given  length  of  time  than  a  12-foot  wheel  on  a 
30-foot  tower. 

The  pumping  mill  is  ordinarily  constructed  so  the 
work  is  nearly  all  done  on  the  up  stroke.  This  is  hard 
on  the  mill,  as  it  produces  a  very  jerky  motion  and  ex- 
cessive strain  on  the  working  parts.  By  placing  a  heavy 
weight  on  one  end  of  a  lever  and  connecting  the  plunger 
rod  to  the  other  this  strain  is  reduced,  since  when  the 
plunger  rod  goes  down  it  raises  the  weight,  and  when 
it  comes  up,  lifting  the  pump  valve  and  water,  the  weight 
goes  down  and  thus  assists  the  mill. 

436.  How  the  wind  may  be  utilized. — In  a  country 
where  there  is  such  an  abundant  supply  of  wind  as  in 
the  Central  and  Western  States  there  is  no  doubt  that  a 
windmill  is  the  cheapest  and  most  feasible  power  for  the 
farmer.  In  certain  localities  water  power  is  a  great 
opponent  of  the  wind,  but  it  has  the  disadvantage  to  the 
farmer  of  being  in  the  wrong  location,  causing  water 
rights  to  be  looked  after  and  dams  to  be  kept  in  repair, 
while  in  utilizing  the  wind  all  that  is  required  is  some 
simple  device  which  will  turn  wind  pressure  into  work. 


3l6  FARM    MOTORS 

The  windmill  without  doubt  is  the  best  machine  for 
this,  but  since  we  cannot  depend  on  the  wind  at  all  hours 
of  the  day,  we  must  devise  some  scheme  whereby  we 
can  store  the  work  when  the  wind  blows  so  that  we  may 
use  it  when  there  is  no  wind.  For  this  means  four  ways 
come  to  mind :  One  is  to  connect  a  dynamo  to  the  mill 
and  store  the  electricity  in  storage  batteries.  This  is  not 
a  feasible  plan  at  present,  since  the  expense  of  storage 
batteries  and  the  cost  of  repairs  is  too  great.  Another 
plan  is  to  run  an  air  compressor  by  means  of  the  wind 
and  then  use  the  compressed  air  for  power  purposes. 
This  again  is  not  satisfactory  owing  to  the  cost  of  keep- 
ing air  machines  in  repair  and  also  of  conveying  the  air. 
Another  scheme,  and  probably  the  best,  is  to  pump  water 
into  a  tank  on  a  tower,  and  then  let  this.water  which 
has  been  stored  up  during  the  time  of  wind  run  down 
through  a  water  motor  and  from  thence  to  the  yards,  or, 
if  there  is  more  water  than  is  desired  for  the  stock  and 
house  use^  run  it  into  another  tank  below  the  tower  and 
then  pump  it  back.  Another  scheme  which  is  similar  to 
that  named  last  is  to  pump  the  water  into  a  pressure  tank 
in  the  cellar  and  then  let  it  pass  out  the  same  as  in  the 
tank  on  the  tower.  By  this  latter  scheme  the  ex- 
pense of  the  tower  and  the  danger  of  freezing  are  obvi- 
ated, but  a  more  expensive  tank  and  also  an  air  pump  are 
added. 

437.  Power  mills. — The  same  discussion,  which  has 
been  given  more  especially  to  pump  mills,  will  apply  to 
power  mills.  As  a  rule,  power  mills  are  larger  than  pump 
mills,  and  require  more  skill  in  keeping  the  bearings  in 
repair.  Care  should  be  taken  in  erecting  power  mills  that 
the  shaft  is  in  perfect  alignment.  A  great  deal  of  power 
can  be  lost  by  not  having  the  shaft  running  in  a  perfect 
line. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

STEAM  BOILERS 

438.  Principle. — A  kettle  over  the  fire  filled  with  water 
is  a  boiler  of  small  proportions.  When  fuel  is  burned  be- 
neath the  kettle  heat  is  transferred  to  the  metal  of  the 
kettle  and  from  the  metal  to  the  water  at  the  bottom. 
Thus  the  water  in  direct  contact  with  the  bottom  is 
heated,  and,  since  warm  water  is  lighter  than  cold,  the 
warmer  water  rises  to  the  top  and  the  cold  settles  in  its 
place.  In  physics  this  action  of  the  water  rising  and 
falling  in  the  kettle,  conveying  the  heat  from  one  part  to 
another,  is  known  as  convection.  In  the  steam  boiler  it 
is  known  as  circulation.  When  sufficient  heat  has  been 
transferred  to  the  water  to  raise  the  temperature  to 
212°  F.  it  will  commence  to  boil  and  throw  off  steam. 

The  reason  why  the  water  had  to  be  heated  to  212° 
before  the  particles  of  water  would  be  thrown  off  as 
steam  was  because  the  atmosphere,  having  a  pressure  of 
14.7  pounds  to  each  square  inch,  pressed  upon  it  so  hard 
that  the  steam  could  not  be  thrown  off  until  this  tem- 
perature had  been  reached.  If  the  kettle  were  up  on  a 
mountain  where  the  atmospheric  pressure  is  not  nearly 
as  great,  steam  would  have  been  thrown  off  at  a  lower 
temperature. 

The  same  process  which  takes  place  in  a  steam  boiler 
also  takes  place  in  a  kettle,  only  under  less  economical 
conditions.  A  fire  is  maintained  within  the  furnace  of 
the  boiler  and  the  heat  is  transferred  to  the  metal  of  the 
boiler  shell  and  tubes,  thence  to  the  water,  which  is  con- 


3i8 


FARM    MOTORS 


verted  into  steam.  The  water  of  a  low-pressure  boiler, 
i.e.,  one  which  carries  a  pressure  of  only  about  5  pounds 
gauge,  is  heated  to  only  about  228°  when  steam  is  given 
off,  while  in  a  high-pressure  boiler  which  carries  about 
200  pounds  gauge  pressure  it  has  to  be  heated  to  about 

385°. 

The  first  boilers  were  simply  large  cylindrical  shells. 
They  did  the  work  required  of  them,  but  were  very  in- 


FIG.    212 — ^VERTICAL   BOILER 


FIG.   213 — VERTICAL    BOILER 
WITH    SUBMERGED    FLUES 


efficient.  The  next  was  merely  a  shell  with  one  tube  oi 
flue,  as  it  is  often  called.  Multitubular,  return  tubular, 
internally  fired,  water-tube,  sectional  boilers,  etc.,  have 
come  in  in  succession  until  we  have  the  present-day 
types. 

439.  Classification. — Steam  boilers  may  be  classified  ac- 
cording to  their  form  and  use.    Thus  we  have  locomotive. 


STEAM    BOILERS  319 

marine,  portable,  semi-portable,  and  stationary  boilers, 
according  to  use;  and  according  to  form  we  have  hori- 
zontal and  vertical  boilers.  Further,  the  horizontal  class 
may  be  subdivided  into  internally  and  externally  fired, 
shell,  return-flue,  fire-tube  and  water-tube  boilers.     For 


FIG.    214 — WATER-TUBE  VERTICAL   BOILER 

rural  use  the  marine  type  is  very  seldom  used,  and  the 
sectional  only  in  rare  cases. 

440.  Vertical  boilers. — Boilers  of  this  type  (Fig.  212) 
are  not  very  economical.  They  require  little  floor  space 
and  are  easily  installed.  In  construction  they  consist  of 
a  vertical  shell,  in  the  lower  end  of  which  are  the  fire  box 
and  ash  pit ;  extending  up  from  the  furnace  and  reaching 
the  top  are  the  fire  flues... 


320 


FARM    MOTORS 


Since  the  shell  of  the  fire  box  is  under  external  pres- 
sure, it  must  be  stayed  to  avoid  collapsing.  The  blow- 
oflf  cock  and  frequent  hand  holes  are  near  the  base  for 


FIG.    215 — EXTERNALLY    FIRED   BOILER 

A/i,  boiler  setting;  BB,  boiler  front;  CC,  boiler  shell;  DD,  flues;  B,  flue  door;  F, 
handhole;  G,  flue  sheet;  //,  bracket;  /,  steam  dome;  /,  safety  valve;  A',  steam 
pipe;  L,  steam  gauge;  M,  steam  gauge  syphon;  iViV,  try  cocks;  O,  water 
glass:  PS,  blnw-oflf  pipes;  Q,  blow-oflf  valve;  TT,  fire  door;  C/,  fire  door  lining; 
F,  ash  door;  IV,  grates:  ■^■,  bridge  wall;  F,  ash  pit;  Z,  britchen;  A,  damper. 


convenient  cleaning.  A  water  glass  and  try  cocks  are 
near  the  top.  Heating  surface  in  this  type  of  boiler  con- 
sists of  the  fire  box  and  the  fire  tubes  up  to  the  water 


STEAM    BOILERS  321 

line;  as  the  water  does  not  completely  cover  the  tubes, 
the  upper  part  forms  a  superheater. 

When  the  exhaust  steam  is  released  into  the  stack,  the 
tubes  have  a  tendency  to  leak.  To  avoid  this,  some 
manufacturers  sink  the  tube  sheet  below  the  water  level 
(Fig.  213).  This  form  reduces  the  superheating  surface, 
and  moreover,  since  the  conical  smoke  chamber  is  sub- 
jected to  internal  pressure,  it  is  likely  to  be  weak.  Fig. 
214  is  a  special  type  of  vertical  boiler  in  which  are  water 
tubes  laid  up  in  courses.  The  boiler  shell  can  be  removed 
from  the  caisson  of  tubes  so  that  all  parts  are  accessible 
for  cleaning  and  repairing. 

441.  Externally  fired  boilers  (Fig.  215)  are  generally 
of  the  cylindrical  tubular  type  and  can  be  used  for  sta- 
tionary work  only.  These  are  probably  the  most  simple 
as  well  as  most  easily  handled  and  kept  in  repair  of  all, 
but  they  are  very  bulky,  requiring  a  great  amount  of  floor 
space.  The  furnace  for  such  boilers  is  a  part  of  the  set- 
ting and  is  made  under  the  front  end.  The  flames  sur- 
round the  lower  part  of  the  shell  and  pass  to  the  rear, 
where  they  enter  the  tubes  and  return  to  the  front,  thence 
up  the  stack. 

When  setting  externally  fired  boilers,  care  should  be 
taken  that  one  end  or  the  other,  generally  the  rear,  be 
free  to  move  forward  or  backward,  since  the  variation  of 
temperature  will  cause  the  boiler  to  contract  and  expand 
enough  to  crack  the  masonry  upon  which  it  rests. 

442.  Internally  fired  boilers. — This  class  comprises 
several  types,  the  locomotive  type  (Fig.  216),  the  return- 
flue  type  (Fig.  217),  and  the  Lancashire.  The  first  two 
of  these  types  are  the  most  used  for  traction  or  portable 
work,  while  the  latter  is  adapted  only  to  stationary  use. 

443.  Locomotive  type. — The  locomotive  fire-tube  type 
was  probably  the  first  of  the  modern  boilers  to  come  into 


322 


FARM    MOTORS 


STEAM    BOILERS  323 

general  use.  With  only  a  few  changes,  it  is  the  same 
now.  By  referring  to  Fig.  218,  it  will  be  noticed  that 
the  fire  box  is  practically  built  into  the  rear  end  of  the 
boiler  barrel.  Extending  from  the  rear  tube  sheet  and 
through  the  entire  length  of  boiler  barrel  are  the  fire 
tubes,  which  are  generally  about  two  inches  in  diameter. 
Surrounding  the  fire  box  and  fire  tubes  is  the  water. 
This  gives  abundance  of  heating  surface,  also  freedom  of 
circulation.  As  the  sides  of  the  fire  box  are  nearly  flat, 
they  will  easily  collapse  under  the  pressure  of  the  steam 


FIG.   217 — RETURN-FLUE  TYPE  OF  INTERNALLY   FIRED  BOILER 

unless  supported  by  stay  bolts  at  intervals  of  every  few 
inches. 

The  steam  dome  can  be  located  anywhere,  but  it  is 
generally  placed  about  midway  between  front  and  rear 
ends.  A  pipe  takes  the  steam  from  the  top  of  the  dome, 
carries  it  down  through  the  steam  space,  where  it  is  dried, 
then  out  wherever  convenient. 

Generally  the  blow-off  is  at  the  bottom  and  in  front 
of  the  fire  box.     The  water  glass  is  placed  about  on  a 


3^4  FARM    MOTORS 

level  with  the  crown  sheet,  since  this  is  the  place  where 
the  water  must  not  get  low. 

444.  Round-bottom  types. — The  principal  variation 
from  the  original  type  of  this  class  of  boilers  is  in  the  de- 
sign of  the  rear  or  furnace  end.  The  common  practice  is 
to  have  the  water  pass  completely  around  the  fire  box, 
including  the  under  side.  Such  boilers  are  generally 
known  as  the  round-  or  enclosed-bottom  type  (Fig.  218). 
As  a  rule,  the  draft  can  enter  at  front  or  rear  of  the  fire 
box.  This  method  of  draft  frequently  aids  the  fireman 
in  firing  up,  for  when  there  is  but  one  ash  door  the  direc- 
tion of  the  wind  may  be  such  as  to  blow  away  from  the 
door,  retarding  the  draft. 

445.  The  open-bottom  type  (Fig.  219)  is  so  constructed 
that  ash  pan  and  grates  can  be  removed  and  a  complete 
new  fire-box  lining  put  in.  The  draft  can  enter  at  either 
end  of  the  fire  box.  There  is  not  as  free  circulation  in 
this  type  as  in  the  round-bottom  boilers,  providing  the 
latter  are  kept  clean. 

When  a  portable  boiler  of  the  locomotive  type  is  setting 
with  the  front  end  low,  unless  there  is  an  abundance  of 
water,  the  crown  sheet  will  be  exposed  and,  if  not  at- 
tended to  at  once,  will  become  overheated  and  collapse. 
To  aid  in  avoiding  this,  some  manufacturers  are  making 
the  rear  end  of  the  crown  sheet  (Fig.  220)  lower  than 
the  front.  This  mode  of  construction  reduces  the  size  of 
the  rear  end  of  the  fire  box  to  a  certain  degree,  but  it  is 
done  where  the  space  is  not  essential.  Fig.  220  also 
shows  a  device  which  further  aids  in  protecting  the  crown 
sheet  by  displacing  the  water  in  the  front  end  of  the 
boiler. 

446.  Return-flue  boilers  of  the  internally  fired  type 
have  one  main  flue,  which  carries  the  gases  from  the 
fire  box  through  the  boiler  to  the  front  end.    Here  they 


STEAM    BOILERS 


325 


Z'2^  FARM    MOTORS 

are  divided  and  enter  several  smaller  flues,  then  return 
to  the  rear  end  and  pass  up  the  stack.  This,  v^ithout 
doubt,  is  a  very  economical  type. 

By  referring  to  Fig.  221,  w^hich  is  an  end  view  of  a 
return-flue  boiler,  it  will  be  noticed  that  the  smaller  tubes 
are  above  the  main  flue.  By  this  arrangement  the  smaller 
and  cooler  parts  will  become  exposed  first,  thus  giving 


FIG,  219 — OPEN-BOTTOM  FIRE-BOX  BOILER 

the  engineer  a  chance  to  save  the  boiler  from  collapse  or 
explosion. 

447.  Wood  and  cob  burners. — ]\Iost  boilers  upon  the 
market  have  interchangeable  grates  so  that  by  placing  a 
grate  with  smaller  openings  in  place  of  the  coarser  one 
for  coal,  wood  and  cobs  may  be  burned. 

Since  the  most  economical  firing  can  be  accomplished 
by  refraining  from  poking  the  fire  on  top,  a  great  many 
factories  are  making  a  rocker  grate  (Fig.  222),  which  is 


STEAM   BOILERS 


327 


U         ? 


328 


FARM    MOTORS 


worked  by  a  lever  in 
such  a  manner  that  all 
fine  ashes  will  drop 
through. 

448.  Straw  burners.— 
For  burning  straw  there 
must  be  special  arrange- 
ments within  the  fire 
box.  The  fuel  is  light 
and  generally  chafify, 
and  as  a  result  flashes 
up  very  quickly,  and  un- 
less prevented  will  be 
carried  by  the  draft 
some  distance  through 
the  tubes  before  it  is  all 
aflame.  Not  only  this, 
but  straw  must  be 
burned  rapidly  in  order 
to  produce  heat  enough  to  make  steam  as  fast  as  needed. 
To  handle  straw  under  these  conditions,  the  return-flue 
boilers  are  generally  constructed  similar  to  the  type 
shown  in  Fig.  22^:  a  is  an  extended  fire  box  with  a  drop- 
hinge  door;  b  is  the  upper  grate ;  and  c  is  the  lower  grate, 
where  as  much  of  the  straw  as  is  not  burned  in  the  upper 
grate,  or  as  it  falls  from  it,  is  consumed ;  d  d  are  deflectors 
which  hold  the  flames  next  to  the  upper  side  of  the  flue. 


FIG.    221. — END  VIEW  OF  RETURN-FLUE 
BOILER 


FIG.    222. — ROCKER    GRATER 


STEAM    BOILERS 


329 


FIG.  223. — STRAW  BURNER  RETURN-FLUE  BOILER 

449.  Direct-flue  boilers,  (Fig.  224),  can  be  more  easily 
changed  from  coal  burners  to  straw  burners.  This  is 
generally  done  by  adding  a  feeding  tube  with  an  enclosed 
drop-hinge  door,  by  removing  the  grates  and  inserting  a 
dead  plate  with  short  grates  in  front  of  it,  and  by  placing 
a  deflecting  arch  composed  of  firebrick  in  the  fire  box. 


FIG.   224.— STRAW  BURNER  DIRECT-FLUE  BOILER 


330  FARM    MOTORS 

By  means  of  the  shorter  grates  the  draft  opening  is  re- 
duced, and  by  the  aid  of  the  deflector  a  combustion 
chamber  is  produced  where  all  of  the  light  particles  are 
consumed  and  the  gases  are  heated  to  an  incandescent 
state  before  entering  the  tubes.  The  direction  of  draft 
in  this  type  is  nearly  always  toward  the  straw,  thus  caus- 
ing the  heat  as  it  passes  the  unburned  straw  to  prepare  it 
for  better  combustion. 

BOILER  ACCESSORIES 

450.  Supply  tank.— Boilers  used  for 
traction  purposes  require  a  small  supply 
'tank  to  which  the  boiler  pump  or  the  in- 
jector is  connected.  This  tank  is  gener- 
ally placed  in  some  position  where  it  is 
convenient,  yet  out  of  the  way. 

451.  Siphon  or  ejector — When  the 
supply  tank  is  placed  so  high  that  it  can- 
not be  filled  from  a  stock  tank  or  other 
similar  source,  a  siphon  (Fig.  225)  is 
generally  used.  The  construction  of 
this  is  such  that  a  jet  of  steam  is  passed 
into  a  water  pipe  leading  from  the  tank 
or  cistern  to  the  supply  tank.     As  the 

FIG.     225— SYPHON  steam  comes  in  contact  with  the  water 
FOR  FILLING  SUP-   j^  jg  coudenscd ;  this  produces  a  vacuum 

PLY  TANK 

such  that  the  water  rushes  in  to  fill,  and 
the  inertia  due  to  the  velocity  of  the  steam  sends  it  along 
into  the  supply  tank. 

Care  mus\  be  taken  in  regard  to  the  amount  of  steam 
used,  since  if  too  much  steam  be  used  the  water  will  be- 
come so  warm  that  the  feed  pump  or  injector  will  not 
work.  ^ 

452.  Feed  pumps. — There  are  three  types  of  pumps 
now  in  use :  the  crosshead  pump,  the  independent  direct- 


J 


STEAM    BOILERS  33 1 


•^L 


FIG.  226 — CROSSHEAD  PUMP 


FIG.  227 — INDEPENDENT  DIRECT-ACTING   PUMP 


332 


FARM    MOTORS 


FIG.  228- 


-INDEPENDENT  PLUNGER 
PUMP 


acting  (Marsh)  pump,  and 
the  independent  pkinger 
pump  (Figs.  226,  227,  and 
228).  The  crosshead  type 
is  the  simplest  and  most 
economical,  but  can  be  run 
only  when  the  engine  is 
running.  The  Marsh  inde- 
pendent pump  is  simple  and 
economical,  but  the  action 
of  its  steam  valve  is  deli- 
cate and  should  be  molested 
only  by  an  expert.  The  in- 
dependent plunger  pump  is 
very  satisfactory  in  that  it 
can  be  run  at  any  time  and  by  any  one.  The  initial  cost 
of  this  is  more  than  that 
of  other  types. 

453.  The  injector  i  s 
probably  the  most  gen- 
erally used  means  o  f 
feeding  boilers.  It  was 
invented  in  1858  by  M. 
Giflfard,  and  large  num- 
bers of  the  same  types 
are  still  made.  The  ac- 
tion of  the  injector  will 
be  understood  by  refer- 
ring  to  the  sketch 
(Fig.  229).  Steam  is 
taken  from  the  boiler 
and  passes  through  the 
nozzle  A  to  the  injector; 
the  amount  of  steam  is         ™-  ^^^-'^^^^^l  ""  ■""* 


STEAM    BOILERS 


333 


regulated  by  the  valve  B.  In  the  tube  C  the  steam  is 
combined  with  the  slowly  moving  water,  which  is  drawn 
up  from  the  tank  D.  The  swiftly  flowing  steam  puts 
sufficient  momentum  into  the  water  to  carry  it  into  the 
boiler.  The  delivery  tube  E  has  a  break  in  it  at  F  where 
the  surplus  steam  or  water  can  overflow. 

An  injector  should  be  chosen  with  reference  to  the 
special  work  required  of  it.  Some  will  lift  water,  others 
will  not.    Some  will  start  under  low-pressure  steam  and 


STEAM 


FIG.    230 — COMMERCIAL   INJECTOR 


Ff  ^.ise  to  act  under  high,  while  with  others  the  reverse  is 
trvie.  There  are  also  injectors  which  will  operate  with 
exhaust  steam.  Such  an  injector  is  not  essential,  since 
the  efficiency  of  one  of  high  pressure  is  practically  100 
per  cent. 

Locomotives  are  equipped  with  self-starting  injectors. 

Every  traction  engine  should  be  equipped  with  two 
systems  of  boiler  feeds.    Some  have  two  injectors,  while 


334  FARM    MOTORS 

some  have  two  pumps,  but  the  most  common  method  is 
a  pump  and  injector. 

454.  Feed-water  heaters. — The  sudden  change  in  tem- 
perature of  boilers  puts  them  under  a  great  deal  of  strain. 
One  of  the  principal  reasons  for  this  change  in  tempera- 
ture is  the  admitting  of  cold  feed  water.  This  water  may- 
be easily  heated  by  passing  the  exhaust  steam  through 
it.  There  are  two  methods  of  such  heating:  one  is  to 
allow  the  exhaust  steam  to  mingle  with  the  water,  thus 
bemg  condensed  and  carried  back  to  the  boiler,  and  the 
other  is  to  pass  the  feed  water  through  pipes  surrounded 
by  steam.    By  the  former  method  the  steam  is  returned 


FTG.  231 — FEED- WATER   HEATER 

to  the  boiler,  and  unless  a  filter  is  used  all  the  cylinder 
oil  is  carried  into  the  boiler,  to  which  it  is  detrimental. 
In  the  latter  case  the  steam  does  not  return  to  the  boiler, 
but  is  sent  up  the  stack,  thus  producing  a  forced  draft. 
Fig.  231  shows  a  heater  of  this  type. 

As  pumps  and  injectors  will  not  operate  with  hot  water, 
and  since  the  water  from  a  heater  is  nearly  as  hot  as  the 
exhaust  steam,  the  heater  must  be  located  between  pump 
and  boiler. 

455.  Water  columns. — The  purpose  of  the  water  col- 
umn is  to  support  the  gauge  glass  and  try  cocks;  it  is 


STEAM    BOILERS 


335 


used  only  in  stationary  boilers.  The  water  column 
should  be  located  so  that  the  center  of  the  column  will 
come  to  the  point  where  the  level  of  the  water  should  be 
above  the  tubes,  or  crown  sheet.  The  column  is  gen- 
erally of  a  casting  about  3>^  inches  in  diameter  and  15 
inches  long.  Into  this  casting  are  secured  the  try  cocks 
and  water  glass.  Some  builders  connect  the  steam  gauge 
to  the  upper  end. 

By  referring  to  Fig.  232 
it  will  be  noticed  that  the 
lower  end  of  the  glass,  the 
lower  try  cock,  and  the 
crown  sheet  are  on  a  level 
with  each  other,  hence 
when  the  water  is  out  of 
sight  in  the  glass  and  also 
will  not  flow  from  the  try 
cock  the  crown  sheet  is  ex- 
posed. The  water  should 
be  kept  about  in  the  middle 
of  the  glass,  and  likewise 
even  with  the  center  try 
cock.  It  should  not  be 
above  the  upper  try  cock, 
or  there  will  be  trouble 
from  wet  steam. 

456.  Steam  gauge. — The  mechanism  of  a  steam  gauge 
(Fig.  233)  usually  consists  of  a  thin  tube  bent  in  a  circle. 
One  end  of  the  tube  is  connected  to  the  boiler,  and  the 
other,  by  means  of  a  link,  to  a  small  pinion  which  works 
a  needle  indicator.  Air  is  kept  in  the  tube  by  means  of  the 
siphon,  and  a  cylinder  of  water  lies  between  the  air  and 
the  boiler.  When  there  is  zero  pressure  in  the  boiler  the 
needle  should  set  at  o.    As  pressure  begins  to  rise  in  the 


FIG.    232 — WATER    COLUMN, 

GAUGE    GLASS,   TRY  COCKS 

AND  STEAM   GAUGE 


FIG.    233 — STEAM    GAUGE 


336  FARM    MOTORS 

boiler  the  air  will  tend 
to  straighten  the  tube, 
and  hence  the  tube  acts 
upon  the  needle.  If  it 
is  found  by  comparison 
with  another  gauge 
that  the  needle  does  not 
indicate  the  actual 
steam  pressure  it  can 
be  regulated  by  sliding 
the  link  up  or  down  in 
the  slot  at  the  end  of 
the  pinion,  thus  chang- 
ing the  throw  o  f  t  h  e 
needle. 

457.  Fusible  plug.  — 
As  a  safeguard  against  low  water  a  fusible  plug  is  put  in 
the  boiler.  In  fire-box  boilers  it  is  placed  in  the  crown 
sheet  directly  over  the  fire,  and  in  return-flue  boilers 
it  is  placed  in  the  back  end  just  above  the  upper  row  of 
flues.  The  plug  is  generally  made  of  brass  about  one  inch 
in  diameter  and  with  a  tapered  hole  bored  through  its 
center  (Fig.  254).  The  tapered  hole  is  filled  with  some 
metal,  generally  Banca  tin,  which  will  fuse  at  a  low  tem- 
perature, so  that  when  the  water  has  become  so  low  that 
the  metal  melts  and  runs  out  the  steam  will  flow  through 
the  opening  and  put  out  the  fire. 

458.  Safety  or  pop  valve. — It  is  essential  that  in  every 
boiler  there  be  a  safety  valve  so  that 
the  steam  may  be  released  before  too 
high  pressure  has  been  reached.  There 
are  two  distinct  types  of  these  valves, 
the  ball  and  lever  valve  and  the  spring 
pop  valve.    The  former  (Fig.  235)  is      "''•  ^^-"""""-^ 


STEAM    BOILERS 


337 


BALL   AND    LEVER    SAFETY    VALVE 

the  least  expensive,  also  the  less  reliable.  It  is 
generally  used  upon  stationary  boilers.  To  increase  the 
pressure  in  the  boiler  before  it  blows  off,  the  ball  must 
be  moved  farther  out  on  the  lever,  and  inversely  to  de- 
crease the  pressure.  The  ball  should  be  set  at  the  proper 
point  to  blow  off  at  the  desired  pressure,  and  then  the 
lever  marked  so  that  the  point  can  be  seen  distinctly. 

Spring  safety  valves  are  generally  used  on  traction  en- 
gines and  the  better  class  of  boilers.  They  are  more  re- 
liable and  also  act 
much  more  quickly.  If 
properly  constructed 
they  will  allow  the 
pressure  to  fall  about 
5  pounds  before  clos- 
ing, while  the  ball  and 
lever  type  only  falls  to 
a  trifle  less  than  the 
blow-off  pressure.  By 
referring  to   Fig.   236  ^^^  236-pop  valve 


338  FARM    MOTORS 

it  will  be  noticed  that  there  is  a  groove  B  in  the 
valve  such  that  when  the  valve  starts  to  open,  the 
steam  rushes  into  it,  thus  increasing  the  area  of  the  valve 
and  causing  it  to  open  more  quickly  and  remain  open 
longer.  To  increase  the  pressure  at  blow-off,  screw  down 
on  the  pin  G ;  to  lower  the  pressure,  screw  up  on  the  pin 
G.  Care  must  be  taken  not  to  tighten  the  spring  down 
too  far,  or  it  will  not  allow  the  valve  to  lift  off  its  seat. 

459.  Blower  and  exhaust  nozzle. — In  all  traction  en- 
gines there  must  be  some  method  of  increasing  the  draft. 
The  most  simple  method  and  the  one  universally  used  is 
the  blower  when  the  engine  is  not  running,  and  the  ex- 
haust when  it  is.  • 

The  blower  (Fig.  218)  consists  of  a  small  pipe  with  a 

valve  which  leads  from 
the  boiler  to  the  stack. 
After  the  pressure  has 
reached  5  or  10  pounds 
the  valve  in  this  pipe  is 
FIG.  237-EXHAusT  NolzLE        '    opened    and    a    jet    of 

steam  is  allowed  to 
blow  into  the  stack.  The  momentum  of  the  steam  pro- 
duces a  vacuum  and  the  air  rushing  through  the  grates 
and  coal  to  fill  this  space  increases  the  rate  of  combus- 
tion. When  the  engine  is  running  the  exhaust  steam 
from  the  heater  takes  the  place  of  the  blower  and  the  lat- 
ter is  closed.  Fig.  237  shows  an  exhaust  nozzle  which  can 
be  made  to  give  a  sharp  or  sluggish  exhaust,  as  desired. 

460.  Blow-off  pipe. — Wherever  there  is  a  chance  for 
sediment  of  any  kind  to  collect  in  a  boiler  there  should 
be  some  means  of  cleaning  it.  This  is  almost  always 
accomplished  by  means  of  a  blow-off  pipe  and  valve.  In 
vertical  boilers  this  is  located  at  the  lower  end  of  the 
water  leg.    In  return-flue  boilers  this  is  either  at  the  front 


STEAM    BOILERS  339 

or  the  rear  end,  and  in  fire-box  boilers  it  is  beneath  the 
fire  box  or  in  the  water  legs. 

461.  Spark  arrester. — Where  some  method  of  forced 
draft  is  used  in  a  boiler  there  is  danger  of  sparks  being 
carried  out  and  causing  fires.  Traction  engines  guard 
against  this  by  means  of  a  spark  arrester.  This  may  con- 
sist of  a  screen  which  catches  the  sparks  and  allows  them 
to  fall  into  the  stack,  or  it  may  be  accomplished  by  turn- 
ing the  smoke  around  a  sharp  corner  and,  as  the  sparks 
are  heavier  than  the  smoke,  they  will  be  thrown  out  and 
are  caught  in  a  receptacle  for  that  purpose.  The  smoke 
box  or  front  end  of  the  boiler  may  be  long  for  the 
purpose. 

BOILER  CAPACITY 

462.  The  capacity  of  a  boiler  depends  upon  the  amount 
of  heat  generated  and  the  proportion  of  that  heat  trans- 
ferred to  the  water.  The  amount  of  heat  generated  de- 
pends upon  the  quantity  of  coal,  the  draft,  and  area  of 
grate  surface.  The  amount  of  heat  transferred  from  the 
coal  to  the  water  depends  upon  the  amount  and  position 
of  the  heating  surface. 

There  is  no  entirely  satisfactory  method  of  stating  the 
capacity  of  a  boiler  or  its  economy,  but  they  are  com- 
monly stated  as  boiler  horse  power  and  the  pounds  of 
steam  evaporated  per  pound  of  coal.  This  method  of 
rating  is  on  the  assumption  that  the  steam  is  all  dry 
saturated  steam  and  that  there  is  no  priming  or  super- 
heating. 

When  water  is  carried  along  with  steam  from  the  boiler 
it  is  called  priming.  Very  seldom  is  a  boiler  designed 
which  does  not  prime  at  least  2  per  cent,  but  if  it  prim'ts 
over  3  per  cent  it  is  improperly  designed.  When  steam 
passes  over  a  hot  surface  after  leaving  the  boiler  it  will 
absorb  additional  heat  and  become  superheated.     That 


340  FARM    MOTORS 

part  of  the  tubes  which  is  above  the  water  line  in  a 
vertical  boiler  is  superheating  surface.  In  other  styles 
of  boilers  the  steam  in  order  to  be  superheated  generally 
passes  through  a  coil  of  pipe  within  the  fire  box  or  a 
furnace  made  purposely  for  it. 

463.  Steam  space. — The  surface  for  the  disengagement 
of  steam  and  the  steam  space  should  be  of  sufficient  size 
so  that  there  is  no  tendency  for  the  water  to  pass  off 
with  the  steam.  It  has  been  found  by  experiment  that  if 
the  steam  space  has  capacity  to  supply  the  engine  with 
steam  for  20  seconds,  there  will  be  no  trouble  with  prim- 
ing. To  determine  whether  the  boiler  has  sufficient  steam 
space,  find  the  volumes  of  the  engine  cylinder,  less  the 
volume  of  the  piston,  and  multiply  this  by  twice  the 
number  of  revolutions  that  the  engine  makes  in  20  sec- 
onds. This  should  be  about  equal  to  the  volume  of  the 
steam  space,  which  is  the  space  above  the  water  in  the 
boiler,  plus  that  in  the  dome. 

464.  Boiler  horse  power. — There  are  two  common 
methods  of  approximately  determining  the  horse  power  of 
a  boiler,  and  a  third  one  which  is  sometimes  resorted  to. 
One  of  the  common  methods  is  by  test,  and  the  other  is  by 
heating  surface,  while  the  third  method  is  by  grate  sur- 
face. 

465.  Horse  power  by  test. — A  committee  of  the  Ameri- 
can Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers  has  recommended 
that  one  horse  power  be  equivalent  to  evaporating  30 
pounds  of  water  at  100^  F.  under  a  pressure  of  70  pounds 
gauge.    This  is  equivalent  to  33,320  B.T.U.  an  hour. 

Example.— If  a  15  H.P.  boiler  evaporate  15  X  30  or  450  pounds  of 
water  in  one  hour  with  feed  water  at  100°  and  under  a  gauge 
pressure  of  70  pounds,  it  would  be  doing  its  rated  horse  power.  To 
make  the  test,  fill  the  boiler  to  its  proper  level  and  tie  a  string 
around  the  glass  at  this  point,  then  keep  the  water  in  the  boiler  at 
this  level.     If  the  feed  water  is  below  100%  turn  steam  into  it  until 


STEAM    BOILERS  34I 

the  proper  temperature  has  been  reached.  Use  just  steam  enough 
to  keep  the  pressure  at  70  pounds.  Weigh  the  feed  water  supply  be- 
fore starting,  then  weigh  again  at  the  close  of  the  run.  If  the  run 
has  been  of  one  hour's  duration,  divide  the  number  of  pounds  of  feed 
water  by  30,  and  this  will  give  the  horse  power  developed.  If  the 
run  has  been  only  one-half  hour,  multiply  by  2,  then  divide  by  30. 

466.  Power  by  heating  surface. — The  heating  surface 
of  a  boiler  consists  of  the  entire  area  of  those  parts  of  the 
surface  which  have  fire  on  one  side  and  water  on  the  other. 
In  the  horizontal  tubular  boiler  it  is  all  of  the  shell  which 
comes  beneath  the  boiler  arch,  also  the  inside  area  of  all 
the  tubes  and  about  two-thirds  the  area  of  the  tube  sheets 
less  the  area  of  the  flues.  In  the  vertical  boilers  it  is  the 
total  inside  area  of  the  fire  box  and  as  much  of  the  tubes 
as  is  below  the  water  line. 

In  the  fire-box  boilers  it  is  the  inside  area  of  the  water 
legs,  the  crown  sheet,  and  the  flues  and  a  portion  of  the 
tube  sheets. 

The  common  rating  of  boiler  horse  power  by  heating 
surface  is  14  square  feet  for  each  horse  power.  This 
varies  with  the  boiler,  some  styles  requiring  a  little  less 
and  some  a  little  more. 

As  an  example,  let  it  be  desired  to  find  the  heating 
surface  of  a  horizontal  tubular  boiler.  Find  the  total 
area  of  the  outside  of  shell  and  take  about  one-half  of  this. 
The  brickwork  covers  about  one-half  of  the  shell,  hence, 
one-half  of  it  is  all  the  heating  surface  there  is  in  this 
part.  Now  measure  and  compute  the  inside  area  of  one 
of  the  flues  and  multiply  this  by  the  number  of  flues. 
Add  this  surface  to  the  heating  surface  of  the  shell  and 
divide  the  sum  by  14.  This  gives  the  horse  power  of  the 
boiler. 

467.  Power  by  grate  surface. — ^This  method  is  not  very 
often  resorted  to.     In  any  case  it  can  be  only  a  rough 


342  FARM    MOTORS 

estimate.  It  is  generally  conceded  that  from  one-third  to 
one-half  square  feet  of  grate  surface  is  equivalent  to  one 
horse  power. 

STRENGTH  OF  BOILERS 

468.  Materials  used. — The  materials  used  in  the  con- 
struction of  boilers  are  mild  steel,  wrought  iron,  cast  iron, 
copper,  and  brass. 

In  order  that  a  boiler  have  proper  strength  for  the 
severe  work  required  of  it,  sample  pieces  of  all  the  ma- 
terials used  in  its  construction  are  selected  and  given 
a  test,  and  those  which  fail  to  have  the  proper  require- 
ments are  discarded.  They  are  tested  in  tension,  com- 
pression, and  shear.     (See  Chap.  Ill,  Part  I.) 

Steel. — All  present-day  boilers  are  made  up  of  mild-steel 
plates.  This  steel  is  a  tough,  ductile,  ingot  metal,  with 
about  one-quarter  of  i  per  cent  of  carbon.  It  should  have 
a  tensile  strength  of  about  55,000-60,000  pounds.  Some- 
times a  better  grade  of  steel  plate  is  used  for  the  fire  box 
and  tube  sheets  of  the  boiler  than  for  the  shell.  This  is 
because  flanging  for  riveting  and  the  variations  of  tem- 
perature due  to  the  fire  require  a  better  grade  of  steel. 

Blue  heat. — All  forms  of  mild  steel  are  very  brittle  when 
at  a  temperature  corresponding  to  a  blue  heat.  Plates 
that  will  bend  double  when  cold  or  at  a  red  heat  will 
crack  if  bent  at  a  blue  heat. 

Wrought-iron  parts. — All  welded  rods  and  stays  should 
be  of  wrought  iron.  About  35  per  cent  of  the  strength  of 
the  bar  is  lost  because  of  the  weld.  Boiler  plates  made 
of  wrought  iron  are  considered  more  satisfactory  than  of 
steel,  but  are  used  only  in  exceptional  cases  because  of 
the  greater  cost.  Wrought-iron  plates  should  have  a 
tensile  strength  of  45,000,  and  bolts  should  have  48,000. 

Rivets. — Boiler  rivets  are  either  of  wrought  iron  or  mild 
steel.    The  rods  from  which  rivets  are  made  should  have  a 


STEAM    BOILERS  343 

tensile  strength  of  55,000  pounds  for  steel  and  48,000  for 
iron.  When  cold  they  should  bend  around  a  rod  of  their 
own  diameter,  and  when  warm  bend  double  without  a 
fracture.  The  shearing  strength  is  about  two-thirds  of 
the  tensile  strength. 

Cast  iron  is  used  in  boilers  for  those  parts  where  there 
are  no  sudden  changes  of  temperature  and  where  there  is 
no  great  tensile  strength  required.  Couplings,  elbows, 
etc.,  are  better  of  cast  iron,  for  when  they  become  set  and 
can  be  removed  in  no  other  way  they  can  be  broken. 

469.  Stay  bolts  and  stay  rods. — In  some  parts  of  the 
boilers  the  flues  act  as  stays.  In  horizontal  tubular 
boilers  the  flues  hold  the  ends  of  the  shell  together.  In 
the  fire  box  and  in  vertical  boilers  they  act  in  the  same 
way  between  the  flue  sheets.  Wherever  there  are  flat 
surfaces  and  no  other  means  of  supporting  them,  special 
stay  bolts  or  braces  must  be  put  in.  In  nearly  all  boilers 
above  the  flues  stay  rods  are  used  to  support  the  ends. 
Around  the  fire  box  stay  bolts  are  put  in.  These  bolts 
are  threaded  full  length,  then  screwed  through  the  outer 
shell  and  through  the  water  leg  and  into  the  fire-box 
lining,  then  they  are  riveted  on  both  ends.  Their  size  and 
distance  apart  depends  upon  the  pressure  to  be  carried. 

Example. — If  the  stay  bolts  are  4  inches  apart  and  the  maximum 
pressure  to  be  carried  is  120  pounds  they  should  be  large  enough 
to  hold 

4  X  4  X  120  =  1,920 

pounds.  If  we  use  a  factor  of  safety  of  10 — that  is,  make  it  ten  times 
as  strong  as  necessary  to  avoid  accidents — it  will  have  to  be  large 
enough  at  the  base  of  the  thread  to  hold 

1,920  X  10  =:  19,200 
pounds.    If  a  wrought-iron  bolt  is  used  it  would  have  to  have 

19,200  -^  48,000  —  0.40 
square  inches  area  at  the  base  of  threads.    A  %-inch  bolt  has  about 
this  area. 


344  FARM    MOTORS 

470.  Strength  of  boiler  shell. — To  determine  the  ten- 
sion upon  one  side  of  a  boiler  shell,  let 

p  =  pressure  in  pounds  per  square  inch, 
/  =  thickness  in  inches, 
r  —.  radius, 
s  =  stress  in  pounds  per  square  inch  ; 


then 


Example. — A  boiler  has  a  diameter  of  3  feet,  a  thickness  of 
7/16  inch  and  the  steam  pressure  is  125  pounds.  How  many  pounds 
per  square  inch  pull  is  there  on  each  side? 

pr  _  I25X3XT2    .    7  _  _^^ 

pounds.  This  is  about  one-tenth  the  tension  which  boiler  plate 
will  stand,  hence  we  have  a  factor  of  safety  of  10,  which  is  greater 
than  need  be. 

471.  Riveted  joints. — If  a  boiler  shell  could  be  made 
of  one  continuous  piece,  the  above  tension  would  be  the 
safe  working  load,  but  since  the  steel  has  to  be  riveted 
and  a  riveted  joint  is  not  as  strong  as  the  original  plate, 
we  must  consider  the  ratio  of  this  strength  of  the  whole 
plate.  This  ratio  is  commonly  called  the  efficiency  of  a 
riveted  joint. 

There  are  three  general  ways  that  a  riveted  joint  may 
give  way  : 

1.  By  tearing  the  plate  between  the  rivets. 

2.  By  shearing  the  rivets. 

3.  By  crushing  the  rivets  or  plate  at  the  point  of  contact. 

Since  only  single-riveted  and  double-riveted  lap  joints 
are  used  in  small  boilers,  these  styles  will  be  considered 
only. 

472.  Single-riveted  lap  joint.— in  the  joint  shown  by  Fig. 
238,  let  t  be  the  thickness  of  plate,  d  the  diameter  of  rivet,  p  the 
distance  between  rivets,  commonly  called  pitch,  the  tensile  strength 


STEAM    BOILERS 


345 


of  the   plate  St  =  45,000,   and   resistance   to   crushing    5c  =  90,000. 
Assume  t  =  7/16  inch,  rf  =  i  inch,  and  p  =  2^2  inches. 

A  strip  of  the  joint  equal  in  width  to  the  pitch  is  sufficient  to  be 
considered. 

1.  Tearing  between  the  two  rivets. —  In  this  case  there  is  a  strip 
to  be  torn  in  two,  equal  in  width  to  the  distance  between  the  rivets 
less  the  diameter  of  the  rivet,  i.e.,  p  —  d,  and  it  has  a  thickness 
equal  to  t,  i.e.,  the  strip  has  a  cross-section  of  an  area  (/>  —  d^t\  this 
cross-section  in  square  inches  times  the  tensile  strength  will  give 
the  pull  required  to  fracture  the  joint : 

(/>  —  d)  tSt  =  (2^  —  I )  X  7/16  X  55,000  =  36,095. 

2.  Shearing  one  rivet. — Since  there  is  only  one  rivet  in  each 
2H-inch  strip,  we  have  to  consider  the  shearing  of  it  only. 


FIG.       238 — SINGLE-RIVETED 
LAP  JOINT 


FIG. 


239 — DOUBLE-RIVETED 
LAP  JOINT 


The  area  to  be  sheared  is  the  area  of  a  cross-section  of  the  rivet,  or 
3.1416  d^ 


The  pull  which  it  will  take  to  shear  this  rivet  is  the  area  times  the 
shearing  strength: 


3.1416  d^ 


XSs 


3-1416 


X  45,000  =  35,343- 


3.  Crushing. — In  this  case  it  is  common  to  consider  that  the  area 
to  be  crushed  is  the  diameter  of  the  rivet  times  the  thickness,  hence 
dtSc=  I  X  7/16  X  90,000  =  39,375. 
The  number  of  pounds  it  will  take  to  fracture  a  strip  of  plate 
^2^  inches  wide  and  7/16  inch  thick  by  tension  is 
2^  X  7/  16  X  55,000  =  60,155. 


34^  FARM    MOTORS 

Hence  the  ratio  of  the  strength  of  the  joint  to  the  strength  of  the 

plate  is 

35,350-^-60,155  =  -588; 

hence  „„  ,       ^  . 

0.588  X  100  =  58.8  per  cent  =  the  efficiency. 

Now,  if  the  original  shell  on  page  344  is  referred  to,  it  will  be 
seen  that  instead  of  having  a  boiler  with  a  factor  of  safety  of  10  it 
will  have  only  58.8  per  cent  of  this  factor,  or  approximately  6,  whirh 
is  about  the  usual  factor. 

473.  Double-riveted  lap  joint  (Fig.  239). 

1.  Tearing   between   two   rivets. — The   resistance   to   tearing   is 

(/>  —  d)  tSt  =  (2^  —  I )  X  7/16  X  55,000  =  36,095. 

2.  Shearing  two  rivets. — Instead  of  shearing  one  rivet  as  in  the 
single-riveted  lap  joint,  two  are  sheared.     Hence 

4  4 

is  equal  to  70,686. 

3.  Crushing  two  rivets. — Here  again  two  rivets  are  considered 
instead  of  one,  hence 

2dtSc  =  78,750. 

The  efficiency  of  this  joint  would  then  be 

100  X  36,095  -^  60,155  =  60  per  cent. 

The  same  dimensions  have  been  used  in  this  joint  as  in  the  pre- 
vious one  for  simplicity  and  comparison.  By  using  a  smaller  rivet 
this  joint  can  be  made  much  more  efficient. 

474.  Test  of  boilers  for  strength. — There  are  two  dis- 
tinct methods  of  testing  boilers  for  strength.  The  one 
which  is  generally  conceded  to  be  best  is  the  hydraulic 
test;  and  the  other,  which  is  about  as  safe  and  sure,  and 
in  some  cases  more  so,  is  the  hammer  test. 

Hydraulic  test. — This  test  consists  in  filling  the  boiler  full 
of  cold  water  and  then  putting  pressure  upon  it  to  the 
desired  point.  This  pressure  is  generally  about  one  and 
one-half  times  the  working  pressure.  Since  some  boilers 
are  designed  with  a  factor  of  safety  of  only  four  or  five, 
if  twice  the  working  pressure  be  put  on  it  there  will  be 
danger  of  rupture  to  the  boiler.     With  new  boilers  this 


STEAM    BOILERS  347 

test  shows  all  leaks  around  stays,  tubes,  joints,  etc. ; 
while  in  old  boilers,  if  they  are  carefully  watched  as  the 
pressure  increases,  it  will  disclose  weakness  by  bulging 
in  some  places  and  distortion  of  joints  in  others. 

Hammer  test. — The  inspector  who  conducts  this  test 
should  go  over  the  boiler  before  it  has  been  cleaned  inside 
and  out  and  carefully  note  all  places  where  there  is 
corrosion  or  incrustation.  At  the  same  time  he  should 
carefully  strike  all  suspicious  places  a  sharp  blow  with 
the  hammer  to  detect  weaknesses.  A  good  plate  will 
give  a  clean  ring  at  every  blow  of  the  hammer,  while  a 
weak  one  has  a  duller  sound. 

Although  a  boiler  may  be  carefully  inspected  and 
tested  by  both  methods,  it  does  not  insure  it  against 
failures.  The  greatest  strain  upon  a  boiler  is  due  to  un- 
equal expansion,  and  neither  of  these  methods  takes  this 
into  account. 

Some  authorities  recommend  hot  water  to  be  used  in 
the  test,  but  there  seems  to  be  no  advantage  in  this,  since 
it  is  the  unequal  expansion  of  boilers  and  not  the  rise  in 
temperature  which  causes  the  failure  of  certain  parts  and 
consequently  so  much  destruction. 

FUELS 

475.  The  fuels  most  commonly  used  for  making  steam 
are  coal,  coke,  wood,  peat,  gas,  oil,  boggasse,  and  straw. 
Those  used  for  traction  engines  and  threshing  purposes 
are  coal,  wood,  straw,  and  occasionally  cobs. 

Anthracite  coal. — Anthracite  coal,  commonly  known  as 
hard  coal,  consists  almost  entirely  of  carbon.  It  is 
hard,  lustrous,  and  compact,  burns  with  very  little  flame, 
and  gives  an  intense  heat.  It  has  the  disadvantage  when 
being  fired  of  breaking  into  small  pieces  and  falling 
through  the  grates. 


348  FARM    MOTORS 

Semi-anthracite  coal. — This  variety  has  properties  that 
make  it  to  be  considered  a  medium  between  anthracite 
and  soft  coal.    It  burns  very  freely  with  a  short  flame. 

Bituminous  or  soft  coals. — These  burn  freely  and  with  all 
gradations  of  character.  Their  properties  are  so  varied 
that  they  will  not  permit  of  classification.  Some  burn 
with  very  little  smoke  and  no  coking.  This  class  is  gen- 
erally used  in  traction  engines.  Others  which  coke  very 
freely  are  good  for  gas  making. 

Wood  is  used  only  where  it  is  more  plentiful  than  coal.  It 
requires  a  finer  meshed  grate  than  coal  and  more  atten- 
tion in  feeding. 

Oil. — In  localities  where  oil  is  plentiful  or  where  it  is 
cheaper  to  freight  oil  than  coal,  furnaces  are  fitted  for  it 
as  a  fuel.  It  has  been  found  that  oil  burns  the  best  when 
atomized  and  mixed  with  steam.  For  this  purpose  a 
nozzle  is  constructed  so  that  both  steam  and  oil  can  flow 
from  it,  the  steam  forming  an  oily  vapor  of  the  oil,  which 
when  ignited  burns  with  a  very  intense  heat. 

Straw. — In  localities  where  straw  is  practically  worthless 
and  coal  and  wood  are  scarce,  straw  is  used  as  a  fuel.  It 
must  be  handled  with  care,  since  too  much  in  the  fire  box 
at  once  is  as  harmful  as  not  enough. 

476.  Value  of  fuels. — Anthracite  and  semi-anthracite 
coals  have  about  the  same  heating  value.  Bituminous 
has  a  trifle  lower  value.  A  cord  of  hard  wood  has  the 
same  amount  of  heat  in  it  as  a  ton  of  anthracite  coal, 
while  a  cord  of  soft  wood  has  only  about  half  that  value. 

COMBUSTION 

477.  The  term  combustion  as  ordinarily  used  means  the 
combining  of  a  substance  in  the  shape  of  fuel  with  oxygen 
of  the  air  rapidly  enough  to  generate  heat.  In  all  fuels 
there  are  hydrogen  and  carbon,  and  some  mineral  matter. 


STEAM    BOILERS  349 

The  carbon  and  hydrogen  unite  readily  with  the  oxygen 
of  the  air,  generating  heat  and  light,  but  the  mineral 
matter  remains  and  forms  the  ash. 

When  the  carbon  of  the  coal  mixes  with  the  oxygen 
of  the  air  and  the  mixture  is  at  or  above  the  igniting 
temperature,  combustion  takes  place  and  either  carbon 
monoxide  (CO)  or  carbon  dioxide  (CO2)  is  formed,  de- 
pending upon  the  amount  of  air  supplied.  If  the  air  is 
insufficient  in  quantity  to  furnish  enough  oxygen  to  form 
COo,  CO  will  be  formed.  If  the  mixture  is  not  hot 
enough  to  form  complete  ignition  a  great  deal  of  free 
carbon  in  the  form  of  smoke  is  thrown  off  and  is  a  loss. 

478.  Heat  of  combustion. — Carbon  will  not  unite  with 
oxygen  when  in  the  free  state  until  a  certain  temperature 
is  reached.  This  temperature  is  known  as  the  igniting 
temperature.  When  the  igniting  temperature  has  once 
been  reached  and  the  carbon  of  the  fuel  combines  with 
the  oxygen  of  the  air,  they  in  turn  throw  off  heat.  By 
experiment  it  has  been  found  that  one  pound  of  carbon 
burned  to  carbon  monoxide  (CO)  produces  4,400 
B.T.U.,  and  if  burned  to  carbon  dioxide  (CO2)  14,650 
B.T.U.  are  produced.  One  pound  of  hydrogen  united 
with  sufficient  oxygen  produces  62,100  B.T.U. 

479.  Air  for  combustion.* — By  weight,  12  pounds  of 
carbon  unite  with  16  pounds  of  oxygen;  hence  i  pound  of 
carbon  forms 

28  -^  12  =  lYz 
pounds  CO,   or  if  it  be  burned  to  COg  it  will  require 
twice  as  much  oxygen  for  each  pound  of  carbon ;  hence 

12+  (2  X  16)  -M2  =  3^ 
pounds  CO2  for  each  pound  of  carbon. 

Since  in  the  3  2/3  pounds  CO2  there  is  one  pound  of 

*A  good  discussion  of  this  will  be  found  in  Peabody  and  Miller's 
"Steam   Boilers." 


3  so  FARM    MOTORS 

carbon,  there  must  be  2  2/3  pounds  of  oxygen ;  hence 
one  pound  of  carbon  requires  2  2/3  pounds  of  oxygen. 
As  we  must  hav£  4  1/2  pounds  of  air  to  get  one  pound  of 
oxygen  to  burn  one  pound  of  carbon  to  CO2,  it  requires 
pounds  of  air.  ,,  ^    ,. 

As  there  are  impurities  in  all  fuels,  so  that  a  pound 
of  fuel  is  not  necessarily  a  pound  of  pure  carbon,  there 
are  variations  which  have  to  be  considered. 

480.  Volume  of  air  for  combustion. — As  before  stated, 
an  insufficient  amount  of  air  burns  the  carbon  only  to 
CO,  while  a  sufficient  amount  burns  it  to  COg.  Instead 
of  having  the  exact  12  pounds  of  air  for  each  pound  of 
carbon,  as  previously  computed,  it  requires  an  excess  for 
complete  combustion.  This  excess  varies  from  one-half 
the  quantity  required  for  combustion  to  an  equal  quan- 
tity. Roughly,  for  each  pound  of  carbon  there  should  be 
from  18  to  24  pounds  of  air. 

By   experiment  it  has  been  found  that  it  requires   10 

pounds  of  air  for  each  pound  of  certain  coals,  and  since 

13  cubic  feet  of  air  at  the  temperature  it  generally  enters 

the  fire  box  weighs  i   pound,  for  each  pound  of  coal  it 

requires 

10  X  13=130 

cubic  feet  of  air  without  excess.  If  the  excess  is  50  per 
cent,  it  requires  about  200  cubic  feet. 

Loss  from  improper  amount  of  air. — If  one  pound  of  car- 
bon be  burned  to  CO,  there  will  be  4,400  B.T.U.  liberated. 
If  it  be  burned  to  COp,  there  will  be  14,650  B.T.U.  set 
free.    Hence  there  will  be  a  loss  of 

14,650  —  4,400  =  10,250  B.  T.  U. 

100  X  10,250  -^  14,650  =  70  per  cent. 
This  would  be  a  case  too  rare  to  be  considered  and  is 
used  only  for  simplicity.     If  due  caution  is  practiced  in 


STEAM    BOILERS 


351 


regard  to  handling  drafts,  there  is  very  seldom  a  loss  of 
over  5  to  8  per  cent  due  to  lack  of  air. 

On  the  other  hand,  if  there  be  too  great  an  excess  of 
air,  it  would  not  only  furnish  oxygen  for  combustion  in 
sufficient  quantities,  but  the  excess  would  be  heated  as  it 
passes  through  the  boiler  from  a  temperature  of  the 
outside  air  to  a  temperature  of  the  flue  gases,  thus  taking 
up  part  of  the  heat  which  would  be  transferred  to  the 
water.  This  loss  generally  amounts  to  from  4  to  10  per 
cent. 

481.  Smoke  prevention. — Black  smoke  is  caused  by  in- 
complete combustion.  It  is  generally  noticed  when  start- 
ing a  fire  or  when  fresh  coal  is  put  on.  To  avoid  as 
much  of  this  as  possible,  keep  the  fire  hot  and  feed  the 
coal  in  small  quantities.  Do  not  have  the  door  open 
longer  than  is  absolutely  necessary,  as  the  excess  of  air 
cools  the  fire  and  instead  of  burning  the  CO  to  COg,  it 
passes  ofif  as  CO  or  free  carbon,  which  causes  the  smoke. 


HANDLING  A  BOILER 
482.  The  flues  are  made  of  a  soft,  tough  iron  or  steel. 
They  are  put  in  place,  then  expanded  with  a  tube  ex- 


FIG.    240 — FLUE   EXPANDED    WITH 
PROSSER    EXPANDER 


FIG. 


241 — i-LUE    EXPANDED    WITH 
DUDGEON    EXPANDER 


352  FARM    MOTORS 

pander  to  a  steam-tight  joint.    The  Prosser  and  Dudgeon 
expanders  are  the  two  types  in  common  use. 

The  Prosser  makes  a  shoulder  on  the  inside  of  the 
sheet  as  well  as  on  the  outside,  but  permits  the  tubes  to 
touch  only  at  the  outer  edges  (Fig.  240),  while  the 
Dudgeon  expander  enlarges  the  end  of  the  tube  and 
causes  it  to  fit  the  full  thickness  of  the  sheet  (Fig.  241). 
Owing  to  the  construction  of  this  type  of  expander,  it  is 
preferable  for  repair  work. 

483.  Manholes  and  handholes. — These  are  openings  in 
the  boiler  to  pqfmit  of  cleaning  and  examining.  The 
use  of  a  manhole  is  confined  to  stationary  boilers  and  is 
generally  placed  near  the  top  in  an  opening  about  11  X  15 
inches.  Handholes  are  generally  in  the  water  legs  or 
near  the  bottom  of  the  boiler.  Their  accustomed  size  is 
about  3X5  inches.  The  plate  used  to  cover  these  holes 
is  held  in  place  by  a  bolt  passing  through  a  yoke.  To 
secure  a  tight  joint,  a  ^-inch  gasket  is  placed  between 
the  plate  and  the  boiler  shell  of  the  handholes.  The 
same  style  of  gasket  is  used  for  the  manholes,  but  it 
should  be  about  y^  inch  thick. 

484.  Safety  valves  and  steam  gauges. — ^The  safety  valve 
should  be  placed  in  a  pipe  by  itself,  and  this  pipe  should 
be  inspected  often  for  stoppages,  etc.  The  safety  valve 
and  steam  gauge  should  be  set  for  the  same  pressures; 
that  is,  if  the  valve  blows  off  at  no  pounds,  the  gauge 
should  not  read  100  or  120.  In  case  this  should  happen, 
do  not  set  the  valve  to  blow  off  according  to  the  gauge 
until  the  gauge  has  been  tested  by  some  gauge  known  to 
be  correct.  During  freezing  weather  the  gauge  should  be 
taken  off  every  night  and  put  where  it  will  not  freeze. 
Every  morning  before  starting  up  the  safety  valve  should 
be  tried  to  see  that  it  neither  leaks  nor  sticks. 

485.  Water  glass. — There  is  a  cock  at  each  end  of  the 


STEAM    BOILERS  353 

glass  tube.  When  these  cocks  are  both  open  the  water 
will  pass  from  the  boiler  into  the  glass  and  stand  at  the 
same  level  as  in  the  boiler,  but  if  either  one  of  the  cocks 
be  closed  or  the  pipes  leading  to  the  cocks  be  stopped,  the 
water  would  rise  in  the  glass  and  give  a  false  water  level. 
If  it  is  the  upper  one  that  is  closed,  the  pressure  in  the 
boiler  will  cause  the  glass  to  fill,  and  if  the  lower  one  is 
closed,  the  glass  will  fill  with  condensed  steam.  Below 
this  glass  is  another  cock,  which  is  used  to  drain  the 
glass  or  blow  out  the  other  cocks.  By  opening  this  cock 
when  there  is  pressure  and  closing  the  lower  one  leading 
to  the  glass,  the  upper  one  will  blow  out,  or  if  the  upper 
one  is  closed  and  the  lower  opened  it  will  blow  out.  It 
is  best  to  try  the  cocks  every  morning  and  see  if  they 
are  open  or  free  from  stoppage.  Always  have  some 
extra  glasses  along,  for  they  are  likely  to  break  at  any 
time. 

486.  Leveling  the  water  column. — Before  firing  up  a 
boiler  a  new  man  should  always  determine  the  level  of 
his  water  in  the  boiler  as  compared  to  the  water  column. 
If  it  is  a  stationary  boiler,  take  off  the  manhole  cover 
and  fill  until  the  water  has  reached  the  lowest  limit  in 
the  glass.  Then  continue  to  fill  until  the  proper  height 
of  water  has  been  reached  and  again  note  the  level  in  the 
glass.  A  good  way  to  mark  these  points  is  to  file  notches 
in  the  guard  wires  which  protect  the  glass. 

Should  the  boiler  be  traction  or  portable,  it  should  be 
set  on  level  ground  and  leveled  up  with  a  level.  Then 
the  water  column  should  be  leveled  the  same  as  in  a 
stationary  boiler. 

487.  Feed  pipe. — There  is  difference  of  opinion  in  re- 
gard to  the  place  where  the  feed  pipe  should  enter  the 
boiler.  In  horizontal  tubular  boilers  it  generally  enters 
near  the  front  end  and  passes  back  through  the  boiler  to 


354  FARM    MOTORS 

near  the  back  end  before  it  discharges.  In  this  way  the 
feed  water  reaches  nearly  the  temperature  of  the  boiler 
water  before  it  comes  in  contact  with  the  shell  or  the 
tubes.  In  threshing  boilers  it  generally  enters  on  the 
side.  Sometimes  it  enters  near  the  bottom  through  the 
blow-oflf  pipe. 

There  should  always  be  a  hand  valve  in  the  feed  pipe 
near  the  boiler  and  a  check  valve  outside  of  this.  The 
hand  valve  is  placed  close  to  the  boiler  so  that  in  shut- 
ting down  in  cold  weather  the  water  can  be  shut  off. 
Also  if  anything  happens  to  the  check  valve,  the  hand 
valve  can  be  closed  while  the  former  is  being  repaired. 
Where  bad  water  is  being  used  the  feed  pipe  is  likely 
to  become  choked  with  scale,  and  if  the  pump  or  injector 
fails  to  work  it  is  often  well  to  look  in  this  pipe  for  the 
trouble. 

488.  Firing. — Before  firing  up  a  boiler  always  see  that 
there  is  plenty  of  water.  Do  not  simply  look  at  the 
glass,  but  clean  the  glass  and  see  if  it  fills  immediately. 
Try  the  try  cocks  and  see  if  the  water  stands  the  same 
in  them  as  in  the  glass.  Notice  the  tubes  and  grates  and 
see  if  they  are  clean. 

489.  Firing  with  soft  coal. — Soft  coal  should  not  be 
thrown  in  in  chunks;  it  should  be  broken  into  pieces 
about  the  size  of  a  man's  fist.  Put  the  coal  in  quickly 
and  scatter  it  over  the  fire  as  you  throw  it  in.  Keep  the 
door  open  as  short  a  time  as  possible,  so  that  no  more 
cold  air  will  enter  than  can  be  helped.  Keep  the  grates 
well  covered  with  burning  coal  so  that  no  cold  air  will 
come  through  them.  If  the  boiler  has  more  grate 
capacity  than  needed,  do  not  keep  fire  on  only  a  part  of 
the  grates,  but  check  the  fire  by  closing  the  drafts.  When 
the  fire  cannot  be  kept  down  in  this  way  without  causing 
incomplete  combustion,  bricks  may  be  placed  over  the 


STEAM    BOILERS  355 

back  end  of  the  grate  and  to  a  height  equal  to  the  bridge 
wall. 

Some  furnaces  and  fuels  require  different  depths  of 
fire  than  others.  The  proper  depth  can  be  determined  only 
by  trial.  Fine  coal  and  a  poor  draft  require  a  thinner  fire 
than  coarse  coal  and  a  strong  draft.  Engineers  differ  in 
regard  to  the  best  methods  for  keeping  up  a  fire.  Some 
suggest  that  it  is  best  to  keep  the  fresh  coal  near  the 
door,  and  when  it  has  become  coked  push  it  back  to  the 
rear,  and  again  throw  fresh  coal  in  the  front.  By  this 
method  there  is  an  intense  fire  maintained  at  the  back  of 
the  furnace,  and  as  the  partially  burned  gases  pass  back 
they  are  completely  burned.  The  advantage  of  this 
method  lies  in  the  fact  that  complete  combustion  is  se- 
cured ;  consequently  there  is  less  smoke,  but  there  is  a 
corresponding  disadvantage  in  keeping  the  fire  door  open 
so  long  and  allowing  the  furnace  to  cool  slightly. 

490.  Cleaning. — Do  not  clean  oftener  than  necessary. 
Keep  the  clinker  loosened  from  the  grates  between  clean- 
ing times.  When  cleaning  large  furnaces,  rake  all  the 
fire  to  one  side  and  then  clean  the  grates.  Rake  a  part 
of  the  live  coals  back  on  this  side  and  put  on  fresh  coal. 
When  this  is  burning  well  clean  the  other  side  in  the 
same  manner.  To  clean  small  furnaces,  crowd  the  fire 
back,  clean  the  grates,  then  rake  the  fire  forward  again. 

491.  Banking  the  fire. — Fires  are  banked  to  keep  the 
steam  from  rising  when  there  is  a  good  fire,  and  also  to 
hold  the  fire  over  night.  Banking  a  fire  consists  in  cover- 
ing the  glowing  coals  with  fresh  coal  or  ashes.  When 
banking  a  fire  for  the  night,  crowd  the  coals  to  the  rear, 
then  fill  the  front  of  the  furnace  with  fresh  coal,  and  open 
the  damper  over  the  fire  enough  to  carry  off  the  gases. 
All  drafts  should  be  kept  closed.  By  banking  a  fire  this 
way  it  will  gradually  burn  back  toward  the  door,  thus 


356  FARM   MOTORS 

keeping  the  boiler  warm,  and  in  the  morning  there  will 
be  a  good  bed  of  coals  which  will  start  up  readily.  When 
a  boiler  is  being  used  daily,  it  is  considered  more  econom- 
ical to  bank  a  fire  than  to  let  it  go  out  and  then  rekindle  it 
in  the  morning. 

492.  Drawing  a  fire. — Fires  are  drawn  when  it  is  de- 
sired to  cool  the  boiler  down  very  quickly  or  when  the 
water  is  dangerously  low.  A  fire  should  never  be  drawn 
without  first  smothering  it  with  ashes,  dirt,  or  fresh  coal. 
Drawing  a  fire  without  first  doing  this  causes  it  to  glow 
up,  and  for  a  moment  become  much  hotter  than  before 
it  was  stirred.  Never  put  water  in  a  furnace,  as  it  is 
liable  to  crack  the  grates.  It  will  also  produce  so  much 
steam  that  it  will  either  blow  back  or  else  blow  the  fire 
out  the  door  and  make  it  too  hot  to  work  around. 

493.  Priming. — When  water  is  carried  over  from  the 
boiler  with  the  steam  the  boiler  is  said  to  be  priming. 
Priming  can  always  be  detected  by  the  click  in  the  engine 
cylinder,  which  shows  that  there  is  water  there.  Taking 
too  much  steam  from  the  boiler  at  once,  carrying  too 
much  water,  or  not  having  enough  steam  space  will  cause 
priming.  If  the  cause  is  too  much  water,  blow  out  some 
and  then  slowly  start  the  engine.  Carrying  a  high  steam 
pressure  and  keeping  the  water  as  low  as  possible  will 
retard  priming  to  a  certain  extent. 

494.  Foaming  is  similar  to  priming,  but  it  is  generally 
caused  by  dirty  or  impure  water.  It  can  be  detected  by 
the  rising  and  falling  of  the  water  in  the  gauge  glass  and 
by  the  engine  losing  power  or  speed ;  also  by  the  clicking 
in  the  cylinder.  When  a  boiler  foams,  the  engine  should 
be  shut  down  at  once  and  the  water  in  the  boiler  allowed 
to  settle.  So  much  water  is  carried  over  in  the  steam 
that  the  glass  does  not  show  the  true  level.  If  after 
settling  down  it  is  found  that  there  is  plenty  of  water  over 


STEAM   BOILERS  357 

the  flues,  it  will  be  safe  to  pump  in  more,  but  if  the  water 
is  low,  let  the  boiler  cool  down  somewhat  before  filling. 

A  boiler  is  more  likely  to  foam  with  a  high-water  level 
than  with  a  low.  It  is  also  more  likely  to  foam  with  low 
pressure  than  high.  A  sudden  strain  on  an  engine  will 
sometimes  cause  the  boiler  to  foam.  If  a  boiler  is  likely 
to  foam,  it  is  advisable  to  carry  low  water  and  high  pres- 
sure. Then  if  it  still  persists  in  foaming,  shut  down  and 
pump  in  a  quantity  of  water  and  allow  some  to  run  out. 
This  will  change  the  water.  If  this  does  not  remedy  it, 
the  boiler  must  be  cleaned. 

495.  Low  water. — Should  the  water  happen  to  get  be- 
low the  danger  line  in  a  boiler,  immediately  cover  the  fire 
with  ashes,  dirt,  or  even  fresh  coal,  and  as  soon  as  it  can 
be  drawn  without  increasing  the  heat  do  so.  But  never 
draw  the  fire  until  it  is  in  this  condition.  Do  not  start 
the  feed  pump,  or  start  or  stop  the  engine,  or  open  the 
safety  valve.  Simply  let  it  cool  down.  After  it  has  be- 
come cool,  then  examine  it  for  injuries. 

If  a  failure  of  the  injector  or  pump  has  caused  the 
water  to  become  low  and  there  is  still  an  inch  over  the 
flues  or  crown  sheet,  the  engine  should  be  shut  down  and 
attention  given  to  the  feed  supply.  When  the  water  has 
become  so  low  as  this,  do  not  try  to  repair  the  injector 
or  pump  with  the  engine  still  running,  as  it  will  run  the 
water  below  the  crown  sheet  before  it  is  anticipated  and 
thus  make  the  boiler  more  dangerous. 

496.  Corrosion  and  incrustation. — It  is  practically  im- 
possible for  an  engineer  to  get  for  his  boilers  water  which 
does  not  have  some  detrimental  ingredients.  Nearly  all 
hard  waters  will  form  some  sort  of  scale.  While  soft 
waters  do  not  do  this,  they  do  contain  acids  which  act 
on  the  boiler  and  fittings  in  a  harmful  manner. 

The  general  impurities  to  contend  with  are  the  car- 


358  FARM    MOTORS 

bonates  and  sulphates  of  lime.  These  vary  with  the  loca- 
tion and  can  be  dealt  with  properly  only  after  experiment. 
Generally,  however,  they  are  thrown  down  in  the  boiler 
in  the  form  of  a  soft  mud  and  can  then  be  disposed  of 
by  blowing  out  and  washing  the  boiler  with  a  strong 
stream  from  a  hose.  The  presence  of  other  impurities, 
such  as  oils  or  organic  matter,  or  even  sulphates  of  lime, 
makes  these  lime  scales  hard  and  adhesive.  Removing 
the  water  from  the  boiler  while  still  hot  will  cause  these 
scales  to  bake  or  dry  on  the  parts,  in  which  case  it  is 
very  difficult  to  remove  them.  Wherever  it  is  possible, 
run  some  soft  water  through  the  boiler  for  a  few  hours 
before  cooling  down  to  clean.  The  acids  will  act  upon 
the  limes  and  loosen  them  from  the  tubes,  etc. 

Since  the  lime  impurities  of  water  are  thrown  down  at 
a  temperature  of  about  200°  F.,  there  are  devices  on  the 
market  which  allow  the  feed  water  to  mingle  with  the 
exhaust  steam.  This  heats  the  former  to  a  temperature 
sufficient  to  throw  out  the  lime  parts. 

497.  Boiler  cleaning. — It  is  essential  that  a  boiler  be 
kept  clean  both  inside  and  out.  Authorities  have  stated 
that  one-tenth  inch  of  scale  will  require  15  per  cent  more 
fuel.  Boiler  scale  is  a  non-conductor  of  heat;  conse- 
quently, the  flues  must  be  kept  hotter  to  afifect  the  water 
as  much  with  scale  as  without. 

The  frequency  of  washing  a  boiler  can  only  be  deter- 
mined by  experience  with  the  water  used  and  the  sur- 
rounding conditions.  Usually  a  traction  boiler  should 
be  cleaned  once  a  week,  but  there  are  wide  variations 
from  this  rule. 

Often  when  there  is  considerable  mud  in  the  water  it 
can  be  blown  out  by  means  of  the  lower  blow-off  valve. 
It  is  good  practice  to  fill  the  boiler  extra  full  at  night; 
then  in  the  morning  when  the  sediment  has  settled  and 


STEAM    BOILERS  359 

there  is  about  20  pounds  of  steam,  blow  off  through  the 
lower  valve  until  the  proper  water  level  has  been  reached. 
When  the  boiler  is  in  operation  the  circulation  keeps  the 
dirt  mixed  and  it  does  not  avail  much  to  blow  off  then. 

A  good  way  to  wash  a  boiler  is  to  allow  it  to  cool  down 
until  one  can  bear  his  hand  in  it;  then  open  the  blow-off 
valve  and  let  the  water  run  out.  Remove  the  manhole 
and  handhole  plates  and  scrape  all  tubes  and  the  shell 
with  a  scraper  made  for  the  purpose,  then  wash  well  with 
a  hose  and  force  pump. 

498.  Cleaning  the  flues. — Fire  tubes  should  be  cleaned 
at  least  once  a  day,  and  sometimes  oftener.  This  is  done 
by  means  of  a  scraper  or  a  steam  jet.  Scraping  should 
always  be  done  in  the  morning  before  firing  up.  Never 
do  it  just  after  the  fire  is  started,  for  then  the  tubes  are 
wet  and  pasty.  If  they  have  to  be  cleaned  while  running, 
do  it  as  quickly  as  possible  and  let  as  little  cold  air  as 
possible  get  into  them. 

499.  Boiler  compounds. — Often  there  are  cases  where 
the  impurities  in  boiler  waters  are  such  that  they  form 
a  hard  scale.  In  these  cases  it  is  nearly  always  advisable 
to  use  a  boiler  compound.  If  the  proper  compounds  are 
used,  they  will  dissolve  the  scale  and  throw  it  down  in  the 
form  of  a  mud.  Then  it  can  be  blown  out.  Wherever 
the  scale  does  not  become  hard  it  is  very  seldom  advisable 
to  use  a  compound. 

Wherever  a  compound  is  necessary  it  is  best  to  have  a 
chemist  analyze  the  water  and  make  a  compound  to  suit 
the  case,  giving  directions  as  to  use  and  quantity  to  be 
used.  For  traction  and  small  creamery  service  this  is 
not  practical.  Soda  ash  gives  very  good  results  for 
creamery  service.  It  has  no  offensive  odors  and  is  com- 
paratively cheap.  Sal  soda  has  also  been  used  with  good 
results.     For  boilers  where  steam  is  used  only  for  en- 


360  FARM    MOTORS 

gines,  kerosene  is  largely  used.  Kerosene  is  also  good  to 
remove  scale  already  formed.  Where  a  sight-feed  lubri- 
cator is  available,  kerosene  may  be  fed  through  it,  but 
when  not  the  kerosene  may  be  put  into  a  boiler  before 
filling.  The  kerosene  floats,  and  as  the  water  rises  it 
adheres  to  the  sides  and  tubes.  Avoid  using  a  compound 
except  when  absolutely  necessary. 

500.  Blister. — A  blister  in  a  boiler  is  identical  with  a 
blister  on  the  hand.  On  account  of  imperfect  material  or 
dirt,  the  metal  will  separate  and  one  part  will  swell. 
Wherever  there  is  a  blister  it  is  best  to  cut  this  part  out 
and  patch.  If  the  blister  is  around  the  fire,  a  new  half 
sheet  should  be  put  in. 

501.  Bag  in  a  boiler. — A  boiler  is  likely  to  bag  if  dirty, 
or  if  a  quantity  of  oil  has  found  its  way  into  it.  The  oil 
will  stick  in  one  place  and  keep  the  water  away.  Then 
the  fire  will  overheat  this  place  and  the  inside  pressure 
force  it  out.  In  forcing  out  the  place  it  breaks  the  oil 
scales  and  allows  the  water  to  run  in  and  cool  it  off. 
Sometimes  it  is  best  to  put  in  a  new  half  sheet  where  a 
bag  is  formed,  but  often  it  can  be  repaired  by  heating  the 
place  and  driving  it  back. 

502.  Cracks  sometimes  form  in  the  flue  sheet  because 
the  flues  are  expanded  too  much.  They  are  often  formed 
in  riveting.  Whenever  a  crack  is  discovered  it  can  be 
mended  by  drilling  a  hole  in  the  end  of  the  crack  and 
putting  in  a  rivet.  This  keeps  the  crack  from  getting 
larger ;  then  the  crack  can  be  filled  in. 

503.  Laying  up  a  boiler. — In  laying  up  a  boiler,  always 
clean  it  thoroughly.  Scrape  and  wash  it  inside  and  out, 
and  then  paint  the  outside  with  black  asphaltum  or 
graphite  and  oil. 


CHAPTER  XIX 
STEAM   ENGINES 

504.  Early  forms. — Hero  of  Alexandria  is  given  credit 
for  being  the  first  man  to  use  steam  as  an  agent  to  con- 
vert heat  energy  into  mechanical  energy.  He  produced 
an  seopile  which  operated  with  steam  upon  the  same 
principle  that  our  present-day  centrifugal  lawn  sprinklers 
work  wiih  water. 

History  gives  us  ideas  which  were  advanced  by  certain  men,  but 
nothing  of  importance  after  Hero's  machine  until  1675,  when,  con- 
jointly, Newcomen,  Calley,  and  Savery  invented  what  has  been  known 
as  the  Newcomen  engine.  Fig.  242  is  a  drawing  of  this  engine  as 
it  was  used  for  pumping  water.  A  is  the  pump  plunger  and  is  always 
held  down  by  the  weights  B.  The  steam,  after  being  generated  in 
the  boiler  C,  is  passed  through  valve  D  to  the  cylinder  F.  The  piston 
H,  which  is  up  as  the  steam  enters,  is  connected  with  the  pump  by 
means  of  the  walking  beam  /.  When  the  cylinder  F  is  filled  with 
steam,  the  valve  D  is  closed  and  the  valve  E  opened,  letting  in  a  jet 
of  water  from  the  previously  filled  tank  G.  As  the  water  enters  the 
cylinder  it  condenses  the  steam  F,  thus  producing  a  vacuum  in  the 
cylinder,  consequently  the  atmosphere  will  act  upon  the  piston  H  and 
force  it  down.  As  it  forces  the  steam  piston  down  it  raises  the 
piston  A,  and  with  it  the  water. 

After  Newcomen,  Watt  produced  probably  the  most  important  im- 
provement of  the  steam  engine.  It  was  in  1769  that  he  got  out  an 
engine  which  would  not  condense  the  steam  in  the  working  cylinder, 
and  by  so  doing  cool  off  the  walls,  but  he  condensed  it  in  separate 
vessels,  which  produced  a  continuous  vacuum.  The  same  principle 
as  that  of  Watt  is  in  use  in  the  condensing  steam  engine  of  to-day, 
the  only  changes  being  in  the  mechanism  for  admitting  and  releasing 
the  steam,  in  mechanical  make-up  and  methods  whereby  labor  in  the 
machine  shop  is  reduced. 

505.  The  present  engine. — The  working  parts  of  the 
present  engine  are  all  of  the  same  general  plan,  with  dif- 


362 


FARM    MOTORS 


ferent  designs  for  carrying  out  the  actions.  The  prin- 
ciple Is  that  of  a  cylinder  separated  Into  two  parts  by  a 
piston.    There  Is  a  valve  connected  with  the  cylinder  by 


FIG.    242 — NEWCOMEN'S   engine 


means  of  which  the  steam  is  thrown  from  one  side  to  the 
other.  This  valve  also  conducts  the  exhaust  steam  out 
of  the  cylinder.  In  Fig.  243,  A  is  a  steam  chamber  which 
receives  the  steam  from  the  boiler.  B  Is  the  valve  which 
slides  back  and  forth  on  the  valve  seat  /.  The  valve  B, 
situated  as  It  is  In  this  figure,  allows  the  steam  to  pass 


STEAM    ENGINES 


363 


from  the  steam  chest  A,  through  the  steam  port  C,  into 
the  front  end  of  the  cylinder  D,  and  press  against  the 
piston  E.  This  forces  the  piston  through  the  cylinder 
toward  the  end  F.     At  the  same  time  the  steam  which 


FIG.    243 — CYLINDER    AND    VALVE    OF    STEAM    ENGINE 

has  been  previously  admitted  to  the  end  of  the  cylinder  F 
is  forced  out  through  the  cylinder  port  G  into  the  ex- 
haust chamber  H,  and  out  through  the  exhaust  port  / 
into  the  air.  By  the  time  the  piston  E  has  reached  the 
end  of  the  stroke  the  valve  B  has  reversed  its  position 
so  that  the  steam  chest  A  is  connected  with  the  end  of 
the  cylinder  F  by  way  of  the  steam  port  G.  The  exhaust 
port  /  is  now  connected  with  the  exhaust  end  of  the 
cylinder  C,  hence  as  the  steam  enters  the  cylinder  at  the 
end  F  it  drives  the  piston  toward  the  end  D. 


FARM    MOTORS 


FIG,   244 


Base. 

Cylinder. 
Steam  chest. 
Piston. 
Valve. 
Piston  rod. 
Crosshead. 

8.  Connecting  rod. 

9.  Crosshead  shoe. 


10.  Wrist  pin. 

11.  Crank  pin. 

12.  Crank  shaft. 

13.  Eccentric. 

14.  Eccentric  strap. 

15.  Crank  disk. 

16.  F'lywheel. 

17.  Valve  rod  guide. 


18.  Eccentric  rod. 
ig.  Valve  rod. 
20.  Steam  inlet  pipe. 
21-22.  Steam  ^orts. 

23.  Exhaust  pipe. 

24.  Cylinder  head. 
25-26.  Packing  boxes. 
27.  Guides. 


506.  Classification  of  steam  engines. — 


Disposition  of  Steam     j  Non-Condensing 

Simple 
Number  of  Expansions  < 


j  Single 
I  Double 


Tandem 
Compound  -l  Cross 
Twin 


Throttling  Governor 
Speed  Regulation  -j  Automatic 
Corliss 


{Stationary- 
Marine 
Locomotive 


iRail 

}  Traction 


Pressure  on  Piston  I  g,"„^te^^^ti^"g 


STEAM    ENGINES  365 

The  classes  of  engines  generally  used  in  agricultural 
pursuits  would  be  known  as  high-speed,  non-condensing, 
either  simple,  single  or  double,  or  compound  tandem  or 
cross,  throttling  governed,  either  stationary  or  loco- 
motive traction  and  double-acting. 

507.  Generation  of  steam. — Enclose  i  pound  of  water 
at  a  temperature  of  32°  F.  in  a  cylinder  under  a  movable 
frictionless  piston.  Suppose  the  piston  to  have  an  area 
of  I  square  foot,  but  no  weight  other  than  the  atmos- 
pheric pressure.  Apply  heat  to  the  water  and  the  follow- 
ing results  will  be  noted : 

1 


B  C 

FIG.   24s 


Af  one  pound  of  water  at  62°  F.  ;  B,  one  pound  of  water  at  212"  F.,  but  lacks 
heat  enough  to  turn  it  into  steam  ;  C,  is  saturated  steam  in  contact  with  the 
water ;  D,  one  pound  of  steam  at  2i2<'  F. ;  B\  one  pound  of  superheated 
steam. 

1.  The  temperature  rises,  but  the  piston  remains  in  the 
same  position  until  a  certain  temperature  is  reached. 
When  the  piston  commences  to  rise  the  degree  of  tem- 
perature is  known  as  the  boiling  point.  This  point  varies 
with  the  pressure.  If  the  pressure  bearing  on  the  piston 
had  been  10  pounds  to  the  square  inch  instead  of  14.7,  the 
boiling  point  would  have  been  reached  at  a  lower  tem- 
perature, and  if  the  pressure  had  been  20  pounds  to  the 
square  inch,  the  boiling  point  would  have  had  a  higher 
temperature. 

2.  As  soon  as  the  water  has  reached  the  boiling  point, 
though  heat  still  be  applied,  there  is  no  further  rise  in 


366  FARM   MOTORS 

temperature,  but  steam  forms  and  the  piston  gradually 
rises.  Since  the  water  is  passing  into  steam,  it  must  be 
disappearing.  During  formation  the  steam  and  the  water 
remain  at  the  same  temperature  as  the  water  was  when 
steam  commenced  to  form.  The  heat  which  has  been 
continually  added  has  been  used  to  convert  the  water 
into  steam  and  is  known  as  latent  heat. 

3.  After  all  the  water  has  been  evaporated,  if  heat  be 
still  applied  the  temperature  of  the  steam  will  commence 
to  rise  and  the  piston  will  also  continue  to  rise.  Since 
the  steam  is  not  now  in  contact  with  the  water  and  is 
hotter  than  the  steam  was  when  formed  and  in  contact 
with  the  water,  we  have  superheated  steam;  in  other 
words,  steam  which  is  heated  above  the  temperature  of 
the  boiling  point  of  water,  which  corresponds  to  the 
pressure  at  which  it  is  generated. 

508.  Saturated  steam  is  steam  at  its  greatest  possible 
density  for  its  pressure.  It  is  invisible  and  must  con- 
tain no  water  in  suspension ;  in  other  words,  it  must  be 
dry  and  still  not  be  superheated.  The  temperature  of 
saturated  steam  in  the  presence  of  water  is  the  same  as 
that  of  the  water,  and  for  steam  of  a  given  temperature 
there  is  only  one  pressure.  If  the  temperature  increases 
and  the  volume  remains  constant,  the  pressure  does  like- 
wise, for  as  the  temperature  increases  more  water  is  evap- 
orated, or  if  the  temperature  decreases  the  pressure  does 
also  and  some  of  the  water  is  condensed. 

509.  Total  heat  of  steam  is  made  up  of  two  com- 
ponents, heat  of  the  liquid  and  latent  heat. 

Heat  of  the  liquid  is  the  amount  of  heat  there  is  in  water 
at  the  temperature  of  the  steam. 

Latent  heat  is  the  amount  of  heat  required  to  evaporate 
I  pound  of  water  at  a  given  temperature  into  steam  at 
the  same  temperature.    It  is  made  up  of  two  components. 


STEAM    ENGINES  ^^7 

One  is  the  heat  required  to  overcome  the  molecular  re- 
sistance of  water  to  changing  from  the  liquid  state  to  the 
gaseous.  This  is  known  as  internal  latent  heat.  The 
other  component  is  the  heat  required  to  overcome  the 
external  resistance  or  pressure. 

510.  Volume  and  weight  of  steam. — The  weight  of  a 
cubic  foot  of  steam  at  212°  F.  is  0.03758.  If  the  tempera- 
ture be  increased  to  337°,  which  corresponds  to  a  gauge 
pressure  of  100  pounds,  the  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  will 
be  0.2589  pounds.  By  increasing  the  weight  of  steam 
we  decrease  the  volume ;  i.e.,  the  volume  of  i  pound  of 
steam  at  212°  is  26.64  cubic  feet,  but  at  337°  it  is  only 
3.86  cubic  feet.  Hence  when  it  is  stated  that  steam  has 
a  volume  of  so  many  times  the  volume  of  an  equal  weight 
of  water  the  temperature  or  pressure  of  the  steam  must 
be  known.  Often  in  testing  a  steam  boiler  it  is  assumed 
that  as  many  pounds  of  steam  are  evaporated  as  there 
have  been  pounds  of  water  fed  to  the  boiler.  This  is  an 
erroneous  assumption,  for  there  is  always  a  certain  per 
cent  of  the  steam  which  is  not  steam  but  water  in  sus- 
pension. This,  of  course,  will  make  the  boiler  appear 
to  be  generating  more  steam  than  it  really  is,  but  when 
this  wet  steam  comes  to  the  engine  it  will  be  charged 
against  the  engine  as  using  all  steam  and  consequently 
much  more  than  is  necessary,  when  in  fact  it  is  not  using 
so  much  steam  as  is  recorded,  but  is  passing  water 
through  the  cylinder. 

511.  Expansion  of  steam. — When  saturated  steam  is 
used  in  an  engine  without  expansion  only  about  8  per 
cent  of  the  heat  expended  is  converted  into  useful  work. 
By  not  admitting  steam  into  the  cylinder  for  the  full 
length  of  stroke,  as  shown  in  a  previous  part  of  this 
chapter,  but  by  cutting  it  off  during  the  first  part  of  the 
stroke  and  allowing  it  to  expand  during  the  remaining 


^6^  FARM    MOTORS 

part  of  the  stroke,  more 
work  can  b  e  obtained 
from  the  same  amount  of 
steam. 

In  Fig.  246  let  the  dis- 
tance OV2  represent  the 
length  of  stroke,  OP^  the 
pressure  of  steam  as  it  en- 
ters the  cylinder  and  while  in  communication  with  the 
boiler.  If  the  piston  starts  at  the  point  O  and  travels  to 
Fj  with  the  valve  wide  open,  steam  will  continue  in  the 
cylinder  at  the  pressure  of  the  boiler,  i.e.,  the  pressure  at 
A  will  be  the  same  as  at  P^  and  the  line  P^A  will  be  paral- 
lel to  the  line  0V\.  Now,  if  steam  is  cut  off  at  V^  and  no 
more  allowed  to  enter,  the  pressure  will  fall  as  fast  as  the 
steam  expands  and  the  line  AB  is  formed.  During  this 
part  of  the  stroke  all  the  work  which  is  done  in  the  cylin- 
der is  due  to  the  expansion  of  the  steam  which  was  ad- 
mitted during  the  first  part  of  the  stroke.  When  the  piston 
reaches  V^  the  steam  is  exhausted  against  a  back  pressure 
of  OP^, 

The  work  done  during  the  admission  of  steam  is  repre- 
sented by  the  area  OP^AV-^,  and  is  all  the  work  this 
amount  of  steam  would  do  if  it  had  not  been  allowed  to 
expand. 

The  work  done  during  expansion  is  represented  by  the 
area  V^ABV^. 

The  total  work  done  by  the  steam  is  the  sum  of  these 
two  areas,  or  OP-^ABV^- 

Then,  of  the  total  work  done  by  the  steam  that  repre- 
sented by  the  area  V^ABV^  is  gained  by  using  the  steam 
expansively. 

512.  Losses  in  a  steam  engine  cylinder. — Only  2  to  10 
per  cent  of  the  total  heat  supplied  to  a  non-condensing 


STEAM    ENGINES  369 

Steam  engine  goes  into  useful  work.  In  multiple-expand- 
ing steam  engines  this  percentage  is  often  raised  as  high 
as  20.  The  rest  of  the  energy  is  lost  by  radiation,  con- 
densation in  the  cylinder,  and  the  amount  carried  away 
to  exhaust.  The  temperature  of  the  walls  of  the  cylinder 
rises  and  falls  as  live  steam  enters  and  expands  to  the 
pressure  of  exhaust;  in  other  words,  the  cylinder  walls 
have  practically  the  same  temperature  as  the  exhaust 
steam,  so  when  the  live  steam  enters  it  heats  the  walls 
to  a  temperature  nearly  equal  its  own.  This  then  is  the 
loss  due  to  radiation.  As  the  steam  expands  in  the  cylin- 
der there  is  a  great  deal  of  it  which  condenses.  Due  to 
this  condensation,  the  latent  heat  of  the  steam  is  thrown 
off,  doing  no  work.  Not  only  is  all  the  heat  left  in  that 
part  of  the  steam  which  entered  the  cylinder  to  fill  the 
piston  displacement  lost  when  release  takes  place,  but 
about  one-third  of  the  steam  which  enters  the  clearance 
space  is  a  total  loss.  Hence  the  smaller  the  clearance 
volume  the  more  economical  the  engine. 

513.  Slide  valve. — The  slide  valve  is  the  most  common 
method  for  regulating  the  admission  of  steam  to  and  ex- 
haust of  the  steam  from  a  steam  engine  cylinder.  Its 
functions  are:  (i)  admission  of  the  steam  to  the  cylinder 
to  give  the  piston  an  impulse;  (2)  to  cut  off  the  supply 
of  steam  at  the  proper  point;  (3)  to  open  a  passage  for 
the  escape  or  exhaust  of  the  steam  from  the  cylinder; 
(4)  to  close  the  exhaust  port  at  the  proper  time  to 
retain  enough  steam  in  the  cylinder  to  give  the  piston  a 
cushion. 

514.  Lap  of  valve. — When  the  valve  is  in  mid  position 
(Fig.  247)  the  amount  it  laps  over  the  edges  of  the  steam 
port  is  known  as  lap.  The  amount  which  the  valve  laps 
over  the  outside  is  outside  lap,  and  that  which  it  laps 
over  the  inside  is  inside  lap. 


370 


FARM    MOTORS 


->|Q  \f/////7y77?4p^  U- 


247 

Object  of  lap. — Lap  is  put  on  the  slide  valve  to  secure 
the  benefit  of  working  steam  expansively.  If  a  valve 
has  no  lap,  steam  v^ill  be  admitted  the  full  length  of  the 
stroke  and  allowed  to  escape  to  the  exhaust  at  boiler 
pressure.  By  the  application  of  lap,  steam  is  cut  off  from 
the  boiler  when  the  piston  has  traversed  from  three- 
eighths  to  five-eighths  of  the  stroke,  and  as  the  piston 
completes  the  stroke  the  steam  does  work  by  expanding. 

515.  Lead  is  given  to  a  valve  to  admit  steam  to  the 
cylinder  just  before  the  piston  reaches  the  end  of  the 
stroke.  By  so  doing  a  cushion  is  produced  in  the  cylin- 
der upon  which  the  piston  acts  and  this  saves  a  jar. 
Lead  not  only  produces  this  cushion  effect,  but  also 
causes  the  port  to  be  partly  opened  so  that  a  full  amount 
of  steam  can  be  admitted  to  the  cylinder  the  instant  the 
piston  starts  on  its  return  stroke.     Lead  affects  the  ex- 

-  / 

GronK / 


FIG.  248 


STEAM    ENGINES  37I 

haust  port  by  having  it  open  in  time  for  the  exhaust 
steam  to  be  sufficiently  released  so  that  at  the  instant 
the  piston  starts  on  the  return  stroke  there  is  no  back 
pressure.     Fig.  248  shows  the  lead,  both  inlet  and  ex- 


EccenrnG 


FIG.    249 

haust.  Fig.  249  shows  the  valve  when  at  its  end  of  the 
stroke,  showing  that  the  exhaust  port  is  completely 
opened,  but  that  the  inlet  is  not  necessarily  so.  Fig.  250 
represents  the  position  of  the  valve  when  the  piston  is 
at  the  opposite  end  of  the  stroke.    It  will  be  noticed  that 


.^r 


CronK 


FIG.    250 

the  lead  in  this  case  is  the  same  as  that  in  Fig.  248.    This 
should  be  true  in  all  engines. 

A  lead  of  1/32  inch  is  about  proper  for  most  engines. 
Too  much  lead  in  a  valve  allows  steam  to  enter  the  cylin- 
der so  soon  that  the  piston  has  to  complete  its  stroke 
against  boiler  pressure,  hence  a  loss  of  energy.     Also 


372  FARM    MOTORS 

where  there  is  too  much  lead  the  exhaust  port  is  likely  to 
open  so  soon  that  the  steam  is  released  before  it  expands 
as  much  as  possible.  Again,  if  it  has  not  sufficient  lead 
there  will  be  no  cushioning  effect,  and  in  addition  suffi- 
cient steam  will  not  have  entered  the  cylinder  by  the 
time  the  piston  starts  on  the  return  stroke  to  produce  the 
maximum  pressure. 

516.  Eccentric. — The  eccentric  is  a  mechanism  often 
used  where  it  is  impossible  to  use  a  crank.  The  eccentric 
of  a  steam  engine  consists  of  a  disk  or  sheave  fastened  to 
the  crank  shaft  in  such  a  manner  that  it  is  eccentric  or 
out  of  center  with  the  center  of  the  shaft.  Around  this 
sheave  is  the  eccentric  strap,  which  is  so  adjusted  that 
there  is  a  free  and  smooth  bearing  surface  between  the 
two.  The  eccentric  rod,  which  actuates  the  valve,  is  at- 
tached to  a  strap  and  gives  to  the  valve  a  reciprocating 
motion  similar  to  that  of  the  piston,  but  on  a  reduced 
scale.  The  throw  of  the  eccentric,  which  is  also  the 
travel  of  the  valve,  is  twice  the  distance  from  the  center 
of  the  eccentric  to  the  center  of  the  shaft.  In  other 
words,  it  is  the  same  as  that  of  a  crank  whose  length  of 
arm  is  equal  to  the  eccentricity  of  the  eccentric. 

517.  Angle  of  advance. — On  a  slide-valve  engine,  with 
the  valves  properly  set  when  the  engine  is  on  dead  center, 
the  center  line  of  the  eccentric  will  not  be  at  right 
angles  to  the  crank,  but  will  be  at  an  angle  greater  than 
a  right  angle.  The  difference  between  this  angle  and  a 
right  angle  is  known  as  the  angle  of  advance. 

The  size  of  this  angle  varies  with  different  engines, 
but  it  is  generally  from  10°  to  20°.  The  object  of  the 
angle  of  advance  is  to  give  the  engine  lead,  and  to  vary 
the  lead  means  to  change  the  position  of  the  eccentric  on 
the  shaft.  Changing  the  position  of  the  eccentric  changes 
the  angle  of  advance. 


STEAM    ENGINES 


373 


In  Fig.  251  let  AB  be  the  travel  of  the  valve,  OA  the 
position  of  the  crank,  and  OC  the  position  of  the  eccen- 
tric. Then  the  angle  COD,  or  G,  is  the  angle  of  advance. 
A  perpendicular  let  fall  from  C  to  OB  gives  the  distance 
OE,  which  designates  the  position  of  the  valve.  In  this 
instance  it  also  gives  the  lead,  i.e.,  OE,  is  the  lead  of  the 
valve.    If  the  position  of  the  crank  is  changed  from  OA 

D 


FIG.   251 


FIG.    252 — DOUBLE-PORTED   VALVE 


to  OA^  the  valve  will  move  the  distance  OEj^  or  a  total 
distance  of  EE^  ~\-  OE  ^  OE^^. 

518.  Double-ported  valves. — The  common  slide  valve 
has  to  travel  so  far  in  opening  a  steam  port  that  there  is 
considerable  wire  drawing  of  the  steam  as  it  enters  the 
cylinder ;  also  it  does  not  permit  a  free  release  of  the  ex- 
haust steam.  Some  manufacturers  are  putting  in  their  en- 
gines a  double-ported  valve  (Fig.  252)  which  gives  about 
the  same  port  opening  as  the  simple  slide  valve  and  with 
only  half  the  travel. 

519.  Balanced  valve. — By  mspecting  Fig.  243  it  will  be 
noticed  that  there  is  high-pressure  steam  all  over  the  out- 
side of  the  valve  and  none  on  the  inside.  This  excessive 
pressure  on  the  outside  causes  a  large  amount  of  friction 
between  the  valve  and  the  valve  seat.    To  overcome  this 


374 


FARM    MOTORS 


excessive  friction  balanced  valves  are  now  made.  Some 
have  on  the  back  a  friction  ring,  which  is  held  against 
the  steam  chest  by  coil  springs  or  live  steam  in  such  a 
manner  that  the  steam  does  not  get  behind  the  valve. 
Other  valves  are  so  constructed  that  the  high  pressure  steam 

is  kept  from  the  back  of  the 

valve  by  means  of  pieces  of 

strap  steel  working  in  grooves 

in  the  back  of  the  valve.  These 

^^^'  pieces  of  steel  are  generally 

held  out  against  the  steam   chest  cover  by  means  of  coil 

springs.     Fig.  253  illustrates  this  type  of  valve. 

520.  Piston  valve. — The  piston  valve  is  probably  the 
most  effectually  balanced  valvx.  The  principle  of  this 
valve  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  common  slide  valve,  but 
instead  of  having  a  seat  it  is  cylindrical  in  form  and  has 
packing  rings  the  same  as  a  piston,  making  it  steam 
tight  (Fig.  254). 


FIG.  254 — PISTON   VALVE 


STEAM    ENGINES  375 

521.  Dead  center. — An  engine  is  on  dead  center  when 
a  straight  line  passing  through  the  centers  of  the  cross- 
head  and  crank  shaft  will  pass  through  the  crank  pin.  If 
an  engine  is  on  dead  center  it  will  not  start,  although  the 
ports  may  be  open.  Locomotives  and  often  traction  en- 
gines have  two  cylinders  with  their  cranks  at  right  an- 
gles, so  that  one  or  the  other  will  always  be  off  center, 
and  consequently  will  start  without  turning  the  wheel  by 
hand. 

Locating  dead  center. — When  the  crank  is  passing  dead 
center  the  piston  moves  so  slowly  that  a  movement  of 
2  or  3  inches  of  the  crank  is  hardly  perceptible  on  the 
piston.  This,  however,  is  not  true  of  the  valve,  for  when 
the  crank  is  passing  dead  center  the  valve  is  moving  its 
fastest,  consequently  it  is  essential  that  dead  center  be 
definitely  determined.  About  the  simplest  and  most  ac- 
curate method  for  putting  an  engine  on  dead  center  is 
by  means  of  a  tram  (Fig.  255).  At  some  convenient 
place  in  the  engine  frame  make  a  clear,  sharp-cut  center- 
punch    mark,   and   with   the   flywheel   about   one-eighth 


FIG.   255 — TRAM  FIG.   256 


revolution  off  center  make  another  center-punch  mark  in 
the  wheel.  Set  the  tram  in  the  center-punch  marks  as 
shown  in  Fig.  256.  Now  with  a  sharp  knife  make  a  mark 
C  across  the  intersection  of  the  crosshead  an  dthe  guide. 
Turn  the  wheel  down  until  the  mark  on  the  crosshead 
and  the  guide  come  together  again,  then  make  another 
mark  in  the  wheel  so  that  the  tram  will  drop  into  it  as 


376 


FARM    MOTORS 


in  Fig.  257.  Having  done  this,  find  the  point  E,  midway 
between  the  two  marks  on  the  flywheel,  and  make  a 
punch  mark  there.  Turn  the  wheel  until  the  tram  drops 
into  this  mark  (Fig.  258),  and  the  engine  will  be  on  dead 
center.    To  find  the  opposite  dead  center  do  likewise  or 


FIG.  257 


FIG.  258 


measure  half  around  the  wheel.  When  it  is  inconvenient 
to  measure  on  the  flywheel,  the  crank  disk  can  often  be 
used. 

522.  Setting  the  slide  valve. — ^To  set  the  slide  valve, 
remove  the  steam  chest  cover  and  put  the  engine  on  dead 
center.  Turn  the  eccentric  on  the  shaft  until  it  is  90°,  or 
a  quarter  of  a  revolution,  ahead  of  the  crank  in  the  direc- 
tion the  engine  is  to  run.  Now  a'djust  the  valve  on  the 
rod  until  it  is  at  its  center  of  travel,  then  again  move  the 
eccentric  ahead,  this  time  only  until  sufficient  lead  is  ob- 
tained. Fasten  the  eccentric  to  the  shaft  and  tighten  up 
the  lock  nuts  on  the  valve;  then  turn  the  engine  over  to 
the  other  dead  center  and  see  if  both  sides  have  the  same 
lead.  If  the  lead  is  the  same  in  both  ends,  the  valve  may 
be  set.  If  there  is  more  lead  in  one  end  than  the  other, 
move  the  valve  on  the  rod  an  amount  equal  to  one-half 
the  difference.  If  now  the  valve  has  too  much  or  too 
little  lead,  the  eccentric  should  be  slipped  forward  or 
backward,  as  the  case  may  require. 

Moving  the  eccentric  in  the  shaft  increases  or  dimin- 
ishes the  lead,  depending  upon  the  direction  it  is  moved. 


STEAM    ENGINES  2i77 

Moving  the  valve  on  the  rod  increases  or  diminishes  the 
difference  in  lead. 

If  an  engine  has  a  rocker  arm  pivoted  in  the  center, 
move  the  eccentric  in  the  opposite  direction.  Otherwise 
proceed  in  the  same  manner  as  without  the  rocker  arm. 

523.  Reversing  a  simple  slide  valve  engine. — To  set  the 
valve  of  a  simple  engine  so  that  the  engine  will  run  back- 
ward, or,  as  is  often  termed,  under,  remove  the  steam 
'*'""i//7«_  chest  cover,  set  the  engine 

on  dead  center,  and  ascer- 
tain the  lead.  Now  loosen 
the  eccentric  from  the  shaft 
and  turn  it  backward  until 
the  lead  is  again  the  same 
as  before.  The  distance 
which  the  eccentric  is  to  be 
turned  backward  should  be 
180°  plus  twice  the  angle 
^^^-  ^59  of  advance   (Fig.  259). 

The  valve  does  not  need  to  be  moved  on  the  rod,  nor 
the  rod  lengthened  or  shortened.  The  only  caution  neces- 
sary is  to  be  sure  that  the  lead  is  always  on  the  end  the 
piston  is  on  when  the  engine  is  on  center. 

An  engine  running  backward  or  under  will  do  just  as 
much  work  as  one  running  forward  or  over,  but  when  it 
is  running  o.^er  the  pressure  of  the  crosshead  is  always 
down,  while  when  it  is  running  under  the  weight  of  the 
crosshead  and  connecting  rod  is  down,  but  the  pressure 
caused  by  the  steam  on  the  piston  and  the  angle  of  the 
connecting  rod  and  piston  rods  will  be  up ;  hence  there 
are  two  forces  working  in  opposition  at  the  crosshead, 
and  this  will  cause  an  up-and-down  pound.  Not  only 
this,  but  if  an  engine  runs  over,  this  force  will  all  be  ex-^ 
erted  upon  the  engine  bed  and  not  the  frame. 


Rynnine 


378  FARM    MOTORS 

524.  Reversing  gears. — Since  the  simply  engine  cannot 
be  reversed  without  stopping  and  using  time,  engines 
which  have  to  be  reversed  often  and  quickly  are  provided 
with  reversing  gears.  That  is,  they  are  arranged  so  they 
can  be  reversed  with  a  lever.  There  are  two  general 
classes  of  reversing  gears,  the  double-eccentric  and  the 
single-eccentric. 

525.  Hooking  up  an  engine. — Some  engine  makers  des- 
ignate their  reversing  gears  as  expansion  gears.  Such 
gears  are  simply  reversing  gears  which  can  be  used  so 
that  the  steam  works  on  expansion.  Reversing  gears  are 
actuated  by  means  of  a  lever  which  works  in  a  quadrant. 
When  the  lever  is  in  one  half  of  the  quadrant  steam  is 
admitted  so  that  the  engine  runs  under,  and  when  in  the 
other  half  the  engine  runs  over.  These  gears  are  gen- 
erally so  constructed  that  if  the  engineer  wishes  his  fly- 
wheel to  run  in  a  direction  away  from  him  he  moves  the 
lever  in  the  direction  the  wheel  turns,  and  if  he  wishes 
the  wheel  to  run  toward  him,  he  moves  his  lever  in  that 
direction.  Some  engines  are  connected  up  in  the  oppo- 
site manner.  When  an  engine  is  carrying  an  overload, 
the  lever  is  thrown  into  the  last  notch  in  the  quadrant 
and  the  piston  receives  steam  nearly  the  full  length  of 
the  stroke.  Although  this  has  to  be  resorted  to  in  some 
instances,  it  is  not  an  economical  way  to  run  an  engine, 
as  the  steam  has  no  chance  to  expand.  When  an  engine 
is  running  on  full  load,  that  is,  when  it  is  doing  only  its 
rated  capacity  of  work,  the  lever  should  not  be  in  the 
end  notch  of  the  quadrant,  but  should  be  somewhere  be- 
tween the  end  notch  and  the  middle.  By  having  an  en- 
gine hooked  up,  steam  is  cut  off  in  an  earlier  part  of  the 
stroke  and  consequently  works  on  expansion  the  remain- 
ing part. 

526.  Double-eccentric  reverse  or  link-motion  reverse. — 


STEAM    ENGINES  379 

There  are  several  types  of  this  reverse,  but  probably  the 
Stephenson  link  is  the  most  popular.  It  will  be  described 
here.  In  Fig.  260,  A  is  the  quadrant  over  which  the 
reverse  lever  B  works.  The  reverse  lever  B,  acting  through 
the  rocker  arm  C,  raises  and  lowers  the  link  H.    F  and  G 

are  eccentric  rods  connected 
at  one  end  with  the  eccen- 
trics D  and  E,  respectively, 
and  at  the  other  end  with  the 
ends  of  the  link  H.  /  is  a 
block  which  is  attached  to 
this  end  of  the  valve  rod  and 
is  worked  over  by  the  link 
FIG.  260— PRINCIPLE  OF  STEPHEN-  ^     y/ith  the  rcvcrsc  lever  in 

SON    LINK    MOTION  .    .  .  ,    .    ,  . 

the  position  in  which  it 
now  is,  the  eccentric  D,  through  the  rod  F  and  block  /, 
actuates  the  valve.  By  throwing  the  reverse  lever  to  the 
other  end  of  the  quadrant,  the  link  is  raised  so  the  eccen- 
tric E,  through  the  rod  G  and  the  block  /,  actuates  the 
valve.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  angles  of  advance  of 
these  two  eccentrics  are  practically  the  same  as  they 
were  for  the  two  positions  of  the  eccentric  in  Fig.  259, 
where  the  simple  engine  was  reversed.  Thus  it  is  seen 
that  the  engine  has  been  reversed  by  simply  shifting  the 
motion  of  the  valve  from  an  eccentric  which  runs  the 
engine  under  by  means  of  the  link  H  and  the  block  /,  to 
an  eccentric  which  runs  it  over.  If  the  reverse  lever  is 
hooked  up  in  the  middle  notch  of  the  quadrant,  the  block 
/  will  be  acted  upon  by  both  eccentrics,  one  acting  in  one 
direction  and  the  other  oppositely ;  consequently  there  is 
only  a  very  slight  movement  of  the  valve. 

Setting  the  double-eccentric  valve. — Put  the  engine  on 
dead  center  and  drop  the  link  down  as  far  as  possible  and 
still  have  clearance  between  the  link  and  the  block ;  then 


38o 


FARM    MOTORS 


set  the  valve  in  the  same  manner  as  a  simple  slide  valve. 
To  set  the  other  eccentric,  raise  the  link  and  proceed  in 
the  same  manner,  but  remember  the  engine  is  to  run  in 
the  opposite  direction. 

527.  Single-eccentric  reverse  gear. — Like  the  double- 
eccentric  reverse,  there  are  several  types  of  the  single- 
eccentric  reverse,  but  the  Woolf  reverse  gear,  being  the 


FIG.   261 — WOOLF  REVERSE  GEAR 


'  ^» 


FIG.   262 — PRINCIPLE  OF  WOOLF  REVERSE  GEAR 


STEAM    ENGINES  381 

most  common,  will  be  discussed  here.  This  reverse  gear 
(Fig".  261)  has  few  parts  to  wear  and  get  out  of  order 
and  may  be  set  so  that  steam  can  be  used  on  expansion. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  in  this  reverse  gear  (Fig.  262) 
the  throw  of  the  eccentric  is  set  opposite  to  the  crank 
instead  of  about  at  right  angles  to  it,  as  shown  with  other 
gears.  Ry  moving  the  lever  from  one  end  of  the  quadrant 
to  the  other  the  guide  A,  which  carries  the  roller  B, 
changes  position  as  shown  by  dotted  lines.  This  causes 
the  valve  to  move  in  the  opposite  direction.  All  types 
of  reversing  gears  have  some  mechanical  means  of  oper- 
ating the  throw  of  the  valve.  This  is  equivalent  to 
changing  the  position  of  the  eccentric  in  the  shaft,  and 
if  one  method  of  setting  the  valve  is  mastered  all  others 
will  be  easily  picked  up. 

528.  Angularity  of  connecting  rod. — Due  to  the  angu- 
larity of  the  connectfng  rod,  the  piston  of  an  engine 
travels  faster  and  farther  while  the  crank  is  passing 
through  the  half  of  its  rotation  nearer  the  cylinder  than 

it  does  while  the  crank 
travels  the  opposite  half  of 
its  rotation.  By  reference 
to  Fig.  263  it  will  be  no- 
ticed that  the  crank  has 
traveled  only  half  its  dis- 
tance and  the  piston  has 
passed  over  more  than  half  its  stroke.  As  the  crank 
passes  through  the  other  half  of  its  revolution,  which 
it  does  in  the  same  time  as  it  did  the  first  half,  the 
piston  travels  as  much  less  than  half  its  stroke  as  it  trav- 
eled more  than  half  during  the  first  revolution  of  the 
crank,  consequently  does  not  travel  nearly  as  fast  during 
this  half  of  the  time  as  it  does  during  the  other  half. 
Because  of  this  unequal  travel  of  the  piston  one  end  of 


382 


FARM    MOTORS 


the  cylinder  is  doing  more  work  than  the  other,  and  as 
a  result  there  is  excessive  vibration  and  unequal  strain 
in  the  parts.  It  is  impossible  to  change  the  connecting 
rod,  but  there  are  now  valve  gears  on  the  market  which 
partly  rectify  the  defect  by  the  manner  in  which  they 
admit  the  steam.  Owing  to  mechanical  complications 
which  arise,  it  is  still  a  question  as  to  the  advisability 
of  putting  these  valves  on  small  engines. 

529.  The  indicator  diagram. — Fig.  264  is  an  ideal  indicator  dia- 
gram and  can  be  described  as  follows :  The  line  xy  is  traced  on  the 
paper  with  no  pressure  in  the  cylinder,  i.e.,  it  is  the  atmospheric  line. 

B, C 


FIG.   264 


FIG.  265 


The  point  A  shows  when  steam  commences  to  enter  the  cylinder. 
Point  B  is  the  maximum  pressure  and  the  time  when  the  steam  port 
is  opened  its  full  amount.  From  5  to  C  the  port  is  open,  and  the 
pressure  is  the  same  as  B.  At  C  the  cut-off  takes  place  and  the 
steam  works  on  expansion.  At  D  the  exhaust  port  opens,  and  from 
D  to  E  the  pressure  drops  to  the  pressure  at  which  the  steam  exhausts 
to  the  air.  From  £  to  F  is  back  pressure,  due  to  exhaust.  At  F  com- 
pression takes  place  and  lasts  until  A  is  reached. 
The  different  parts  of  the  diagram  are  known  as  follows : 
xy.  Atmospheric  line, 

AB.  Admission  line, 

BC.  Steam  line, 

CD.  Expansion  line, 

DE.  Exhaust  line, 

EF.  Back  pressure  line, 

FA.  Compression  line, 
A.  Point  of  admission, 

C.  Point  of  cut-off, 

D,  Point  of  release, 

F.  Point  of  compression. 


STEAM    ENGINES 


383 


There  are  mechanical  difficulties  which  must  be  taken  into  con- 
sideration; hence  the  diagram  as  usually  obtained  from  a  steam 
engine  cylinder  is  not  like  Fig.  264,  but  is  like  Fig.  265.  Here  the 
corners  are  rounded  off,  due  to  wire  drawing  and  slow-acting  valves. 
The  line  BC  drops,  due  to  the  resistance  of  steam  moving  through 
the  boilers.  The  point  C  is  not  a  sharp  one,  since  the  valve  cannot 
move  quickly  enough  to  cut  off  steam  instantaneously,  but  commences 
to  cut  off  at  C,  and  complete  cut-off  takes  place  at  C.  This  fall  in 
pressure  after  the  valve  commences  to  cut  off  and  before  it  com- 
pletely tuts  off  is  known  as  wire  drawing.  Often  the  exhaust  valve 
does  not  open  soon  enough  for  the  pressure  to  fall  to  the  back 
pressure  line  before  the  piston  starts  in  the  return  stroke ;  hence  the 
line  DE  of  Fig.  264  is  more  like  the  line  DE  of  Fig.  265. 

530.  Attaching  indicator  to  engine. — Where  indicator  diagrams 
are  to  be  taken  from  engines  of  100  H.P.  or  more  it  is  better 
to  have  two  indicators,  one  for  each  end  of  the  cylinder ;  but  for 
engines  of  a  capacity  such  as  are  used  on  the  farm  or  in  cream- 
eries one  indicator  connected  to  both  ends  of  the  cylinder  by  means 
of  a  three-way  cock  is  fully  as  accurate  as  two.  If  there  are  no 
holes  for  attaching  the  indicator  when  the  engine  comes  from  the 
factory,  drill  into  each  clearance  space  A  A   (Fig.  266)  of  the  cylin- 


FIG.    266 — ATTACHING   AN   INDICATOR   TO   AN   ENGINE 


der  a  hole  of  sufficient  size  to  thread  for  ^-inch  or  ^-inch  pipe,  and 
by  means  of  pipe  fittings  connect  up  to  the  three-way  cock  B.  The 
connection  on  the  indicator  will  screw  into  the  cock  at  C.     Since 


384 


FARM    MOTORS 


the  throw  of  the  indicator  drum  is  only  about  3^  inches  ar'^.  the 
stroke  of  the  piston  is  8  to  20  inches,  the  length  of  stroke  of  the 
piston  has  to  be  reduced  to  that  of  the  indicator.  There  are  several 
mechanisms  for  this  purpose,  some  of  which  come  with  the  indi- 
cator (Fig.  267).  If  a  reducing  motion  has  to  be  devised,  probably 
that  shown  in  Fig.  268  is  the  most  simple. 


FIG.    267 — REDUCING    MOTION 
ATTACHED    TO    INDICATOR 


531.  Taking  indicator  diagrams. — To  take  an  indicator  diagram 
the  string  after  being  hooked  up  should  be  of  proper  length  to  give 
the  indicator  drum  a  clear  movement.  When  the  indicator  is  rotat- 
ing back  and  forth,  if  the  pencil  is  held  against  it  the  atmospheric 
line  may  be  drawn.  The  cock  should  then  be  opened  and  the 
steam  allowed  to  enter  from  one  end  of  the  cylinder  until  the  indi- 
cator has  become  warmed  up.  Then  the  pencil  should  be  held 
against  the  drum  while  the  piston  takes  two  or  three  strokes.  A 
diagram  can  be  taken  from  the  other  end  of  the  cylinder  on  this 
same  card  by  simply  turning  the  cock  over,  or  this  card  may  be 
taken  out  and  a  new  one  put  in. 

532.  Reading  an  indicator  diagram. — To  read  an  indicator  for 
perfect  valve  setting  it  is  best  to  compare  it  with  a  perfect  diagram. 
It  is  assumed  that  in  the  diagram  Fig.  269  the  heavy  line  is  the  per- 
fect one  and  those  with  dotted  lines  are  taken  from  engines  with 
poorly  set  valves. 

a  shows  too  early  compression. 

a'  shows  too  late  compression. 

h  shows  excess  of  lead. 

b'  shows  insufficient  lead. 

c  shows  wire  drawing, 

s'  shows  late  release. 

J  shows  early  release. 


STEAM    ENGINES 


3^5 


To  read  an  indicator  diagram  for  pressures. — Whenever  pos- 
sible the  scales  should  be  divided  into  parts  equivalent  to  the  scale 
of  the  spring,  i.  e.,  if  the  spring  is  60  pounds  to  the  inch  the  scales 
should  be  divided  into  60  parts.  Whenever  this  is  not  possible  a 
tenths  or  hundredths  scale  may  be  used.     The  scale  shown  in  Fig. 


FIG.  269 


FIG.  270 


270  is  a  tenths  scale,  and  it  now  reads  1.7  inches  with  a  60-pound 
spring.     This  gives  a  steam  pressure  at  that  point  of 

1.7  X  60=  102.0  pounds. 
If  the  scale  is  moved  down  to  the  point  of  release  it  reads 
0.45  X  60  =  27.00  pounds. 

533.  Governors. — The  object  of  a  governor  is  to  main- 
tain as  nearly  as  possible  a  uniform  speed  of  rotation  of 
the  engine.  When  the  speed  of  the  engine  varies  through 
several  revolutions  because  of  variation  of  load  or  boiler 
pressure,  the  governor  will  aid  in  regulating  it,  but  if 
the  variation  of  speed  is  confined  to  a  single  revolution 
or  a  part  of  a  revolution,  the  variation  must  be  cared  for 
in  the  flywheel.  Since  governors  for  steam  engines  are 
attached  to  the  engine,  they  cannot  regulate  the  speed 
exactly,  for  they  cannot  act  until  the  engine  does.  In 
other  words,  the  engine  has  to  commence  to  slow  down 
before  the  governor  will  be  affected.  It  then  takes  the 
governor  a  little  time  to  act,  and  consequently  the  engine 
has  quite  a  chance  to  vary  its  speed  of  rotation.  In 
practice,  however,  when  a  slight  change  of  speed  takes 
place,  a  good  governor  acts  instantly  and  allows  only  a 


386 


FARM    MOTORS 


very  small  variation  of  speed.  Governors  regulate  the 
speed  of  an  engine  in  two  ways :  by  varying  the  steam 
pressure  as  it  enters  the  cylinder,  and  by  varying  the 
point  of  cut-off. 

534.  Throttling  governors. — Governors  which  act  upon 
the  steam  in  such  a  manner  as  to  vary  the  pressure  in 
the  cylinder  are  known  as  throttling  governors  (Fig. 
271).  In  other  words,  they  throttle  the  steam  before  it 
enters  the  steam  chest  so  there  is  not  enough  admitted 
to  fill  the  space  intended  for  it.  Therefore,  boiler  pres- 
sure is  not  attained,  and  consequently  the  steam  does 
not  exert  as  much  force  upon  the  piston  as  when  the 
governor  is  not  acting.  As  a  result,  the  engine  does  not 
do  its  full  capacity  of  work. 


FIG.    271 — THROTTLING   GOVERNOR 


FIG.   272  — SECTIONAL  VIEW  OF 
THROTTLING  GOVERNOR 


STEAM    ENGINES  387 

Principle  of  the  throttling  governor.  —  Fig.  272  is  a 
sectional  view  of  a  throttling  governor.  The  governor  is 
generally  placed  upon  the  steam  chest,  and  when  not  in 
this  place  it  must  be  as  close  to  it  as  possible. 

Steam  enters  the  governor  from  the  boiler  through 
the  pipe  A.  Passing  through  the  governor  valve  B,  it 
enters  the  steam  chest  C.  If  the  valve  B  is  clear  up, 
which  is  analogous  to  wide  open,  the  steam  passes  into 
the  steam  chest  unmolested  as  far  as  pressure  is  con- 
cerned, but  if  the  valve  B  is  partly  closed  the  steam  is 
throttled  as  it  passes  the  valve.  Consequently  the  pres- 
sure in  the  steam  chest  is  not  as  great  as  in  the  steam 
pipe  A.  From  this  it  is  seen  that  the  only  requisite  for 
a  governor,  other  than  the  design  of  valve  B,  is  some 
device  which  will  raise  and  lower  the  valve  B  as  the 
speed  of  the  engine  increases  or  decreases. 

The  pulley  D  is  run  by  a  belt  from  the  engine  shaft, 
and  whenever  the  speed  of  the  engine  varies  the  speed 
of  this  pulley  also  varies.  By  means  of  the  beveled 
pinions  E  and  F  the  motion  is  transmitted  from  the 
pulley  D  to  the  governor  balls  G  and  H.  With  no  motion 
in  the  pulley  D  these  balls  hang  down,  but  as  soon  as  the 
pulley  commences  to  revolve  the  balls  do  likewise,  and, 
due  to  centrifugal  force,  they  commence  to  rise.  When 
the  engine  attains  its  full  speed  the  balls,  acting  through 
the  arms  /  and  /  and  valve  rod,  should  have  partly 
closed  the  valve.  By  having  the  valve  partly  closed  when 
the  engine  is  running  at  its  normal  speed  there  is  oppor- 
tunity for  the  valve  to  be  opened  when  the  speed  drops. 
If  the  engine  is  not  carrying  full  load  it  will  be  inclined 
to  run  too  fast.  This  increased  speed  of  the  engine 
causes  the  governor  balls  to  rise  higher  and  consequently 
close  the  valve  a  trifle.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  gov- 
ernor balls  are  not  only  acting  on  the  valve  D,  but  are 


3^'  FARM    MOTORS 

also  acting  on  the  spring.  Hence  if  the  spring  K  is 
tightened  by  screwing  down  on  the  hand  wheel  L  the 
engine  will  have  to  be  running  faster  before  the  governor 
will  act.  If  the  hand  wheel  is  loosened,  the  balls  will 
act  more  quickly,  and  consequently  the  engine  cannot 
attain  so  high  a  speed. 

If  the  belt  of  this  governor  be  taken  off,  the  engine 
will  have  to  be  controlled  by  the  throttle,  since  there  is 
nothing  else  to  prevent  the  steam  from  flowing  into  the 
cylinder  as  fast  as  the  cylinder  will  take  it.  If  there  is 
no  one  at  hand  to  control  the  throttle,  the  engine  will 
run  away.  This  is  the  reason  why  so  many  engines  run 
away  when  the  governor  belt  breaks.  A  great  many 
governors  are  now  equipped  with  an  idle  pulley  running 
on  the  governor  belt.  This  pulley  is  attached  to  the 
throttle  in  such  a  manner  that  when  the  belt  breaks  the 
pulley  is  free  to  fall,  and  by  so  doing  closes  the  throttle 
and  stops  the  engine. 

535.  Racing. — An  engine  is  said  to  be  racing  when  its 
speed  of  rotation  fluctuates  badly  with  a  constant  load. 
Racing  in  nearly  all  cases  is  caused  by  the  governor, 
Either  it  is  not  working  satisfactorily,  or  else  it  is  poorly 
designed.  If  the  valve  stem  is  packed  very  tight,  the 
engine  will  have  to  attain  a  very  high  speed  before  the 
balls  have  sufficient  force  in  them  to  force  the  valve  down. 
Then  when  it  is  down  the  engine  has  to  slow  down  en- 
tirely too  much  before,  the  spring  will  have  the  energy  to 
,r-^k  force  the  valve  up.     An  en- 

gine will  also  race  if  the  gov- 
ernor belt  is  loose  and  slips, 
or  if  the  governor  is  im- 
properly oiled. 

536.  Indicator       diagrams 
FIG.  273  from    a    throttling-governed 


STEAM    ENGINES 


389 


engine. — The  indicator  diagram  shows  more  clearly  the 
effect  of  throttling  the  steam  of  an  engine  than  any  de- 
scription. Fig.  273  shows  a  diagram  taken  from  an 
engine ;  No.  i,  with  full  load ;  No.  2,  with  about  half  load ; 
No.  3,  with  about  quarter  load. 

In  all  the  diagrams  it  will  be  noticed  that  the 
points  of  compression,  admission,  cut-off,  and  release 
remain  constant,  while  the  steam  and  expansion  lines 
vary. 

537.  Automatic  cut-off  governor. — Steam  cannot  be 
used  as  economically  under  low  pressure  as  under  high, 


FIG.'  274 


390  FARM    MOTORS 

hence  when  the  steam  is  throttled  down  as  in  No.  3  (Fig. 
273)  it  is  not  as  economical  as  when  used  at  full  pressure. 
To  overcome  this  loss  in  throttling-governed  engines, 
automatic  cut-off  governors  have  been  devised.  These 
governors  act  in  such  a  manner  that  they  do  not  throttle 
the  steam  as  it  enters  the  engine,  but  change  the  point 
of  cut-off  and  by  so  doing  permit  steam  to  enter  for  a 
shorter  or  longer  part  of  the  stroke  (as  the  speed  of  the 
engine  requires)  at  boiler  pressure  and  allow  it  to  work 
on  expansion.  Fig.  274  represents  the  outline  of  an  auto- 
matic cut-off  governor.  A  is  the  flywheel  which  carries  the 
governor  mechanism ;  B,  the  governing  mechanism ;  C, 
the  eccentric  sheave ;  E,  a  slot  in  the  eccentric  sheave 
within  which  the  engine  shaft  revolves.  As  the  speed  of 
rotation  of  the  engine  varies,  the  weight  B  will  move 
the  sheave   C  backward   or  forward  across  the  engine 

shaft.  This  change  in  the 
position  of  the  eccentric 
sheave  changes  the  throw 
of  the  eccentric  and  conse- 
quently the  point  of  cut-off 
of  the  valve.  Fig.  275  shows 
indicator  diagrams  with 
varying  loads.  No.  i  is 
overload;  No.  2,  full  load; 
No.  3,  about  half  load,  and  No.  4,  practically  no  load. 
The  steam  line  for  all  loads  is  the  same,  but  the 
point  of  cut-off  varies,  thus  giving  an  increased  or 
reduced  amount  of  energy  exerted  on  the  piston. 
Diagram  No.  4  shows  how  the  steam  has  expanded 
below  atmospheric  pressure,  and  when,  the  exhaust 
port  is  opened  the  pressure  rises  instead  of  falling. 
The  area  below  the  atmospheric  line  is  then  negative 
work.     Instead  of  working  a  large  engine  on  as  light  a 


STEAM    ENGINES 


391 


load  as  this,  much  of  the  time  it  is  more  economical  to 
use  a  smaller  engine. 

538.  Corliss-governed  engines  have  a  great  many  eco- 
nomical advantages  over  other  types  of  engines:  (i)  re- 
duced clearance  volume,  due  to  the  proximity  of  the 
valves  to  the  cylinder;  (2)  separate  valves  for  steam  and 
exhaust,      the     steam 

valves  being  on  top  and 
the  exhaust  beneath,  so 
there  is  a  free  and  short 
passage  for  the  water  to 
leave  the  cylinder;  (3) 
a  wide  opening  of  the 
steam  valve  and  a  very 
quick  closing  at  cut-oflf, 
thus  giving  a  sharp  point 
of  cut-off  without  wire 
drawing;  (4)  the  valve 
mechanism  permits  of 
independent  adjustment 
of  admission  and  cut-off 
release  and  compres- 
sion. The  disadvantages 
of  this  engine  are  that  it 

is  of  necessity  slow  speed,  and  hence  to  get  the  required 
power. must  be  large.  This  makes  the  first  cost  great, 
not  only  in  the  engine  itself,  but  in  the  material  for  an 
engine  room. 

539.  A  double-cylinder  engine  (Fig.  276),  or  a  double 
engine,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  is  an  engine  which  has 
two  cylinders,  both  of  which  take  the  steam  directly  from 
the  boiler.  Both  cylinders  of  a  double  engine  should  be 
connected  to  the  same  crank  shaft,  and  their  cranks 
should  be  at  an  angle  of  90°  with  each  other.    The  only 


FIG.  276 — DOUBLE-CYLINDER  ENGINE 


392  FARM    MOTORS 

advantages  to  be  gained  from  a  double-cylinder  engine 
are:  (i)  being  able  to  start  without  turning  off  dead 
center  by  hand  ;  (2)  being  able  to  start  with  a  heavy  load ; 
and  (3)  being  able  to  move  slowly  with  a  heavy  load. 
If  the  cranks  were  set  in  line  with  each  other,  these  ad- 
vantages would  not  be  gained.  The  disadvantages  of  a 
double  engine  are :  more  moving  parts,  greater  chances 
for  steam  to  leak  about  the  cylinder  and  the  piston,  and 
more  cooling  surface,  hence  greater  condensation  during 
the  working  stroke.  Although  a  double  engine  is  more 
easily  handled  than  a  single  one,  there  are  only  a  few  in- 
stances, such  as  plowing  and  heavy  traction  work,  where 
its  use  is  recommended  for  farm  work. 

540.  Compound  engines. — The  purpose  of  compound 
engines  is  not  to  give  a  greater  expansion.  This  could 
be  accomplished  with  the  low-pressure  cylinder  and  early 
cut-off.  The  real  purpose  is  (i)  to  keep  the  cylinders  as 
nearly  as  possible  at  the  temperature  of  the  entering 
steam,  preventing  losses  by  condensation;  (2)  to  reduce 
the  surface  exposed  to  the  high-pressure  steam  to  a  mini- 
mum ;  (3)  to  use  the  high-pressure  steam  in  a  small 
cylinder,  hence  requiring  less  material  to  make  it  suffi- 
ciently strong. 

The  first  cylinder,  known  as  the  high-pressure  cylin- 
der, expands  the  steam  partly;  then  the  second,  or  low- 
pressure,  receives  it  and  expands  it  further.  Since  the 
steam  as  it  enters  the  high-pressure  cylinder  is  under  a 
higher  pressure  than  when  it  enters  the  low-pressure 
cylinder,  the  latter  cylinder  must  be  larger  than  the 
former  to  accommodate'  the  increased  volume  of  the 
steam.  Where  steam  is  expanded  in  two  cylinders  the 
engine  is  known  as  a  double-expansion  compound ;  where 
it  is  expanded  in  three  cylinders  it  is  known  as  triple- 
expansion,  and  in  four  cylinders  it  is  known  as  quadruple- 


STEAM    ENGINES 


393 


394 


FARM    MOTORS 


expansion.  When  one  cylinder  is  in  front  of  the  other, 
the  engine  is  said  to  be  a  tandem  compound,  and  when 
the  cylinders  are  side  by  side  it  is  said  to  be  a  cross- 
compound  engine.  Fig.  2yj  shows  the  Woolf  tandem- 
compound     engine    in    common    use    in    traction     service. 

The  arrows  show  the 
direction  of  the  steam  as 
it  passes  from  cylinder 
to  cylinder.  Fig.  278  il- 
lustrates a  cross-com- 
pound engine,  showing 
how  the  steam  passes 
through  a  superheater  as 
it  travels  from  the  high- 
pressure  to  the  low- 
pressure  cylinder.  It  also 
shows  the  relative  sizes 
of  the  two  cylinders. 

541.  Horse  power  of 
steam  engines. — There 
are  three  methods  of  rat- 
ing steam  engines.  One 
method  is  by  the  indi- 
cated horse  power, 
which  is  the  total  work 
exerted  by  the  steam  in  the  cylinder;  the  second 
method  is  the  actual  or  brake  horse  power  (see  Chapter 
I),  which  is  the  actual  work  delivered  from  the  fly- 
wheel of  the  engine;  and  the  third  is  the  commercial 
rating. 

542.  Commercial  rating  of  steam  engines. — The  com- 
mercial rating  of  all  stationary  steam  engines  is  about 
their  actual  horse  power,  but  the  commercial  rating  of 
traction    steam    engines    is    far    below    their    actual    horse 


FIG.   278 — CROSS-COMPOUND   ENGINE 


STEAM    ENGINES  395 

power.  This  is  a  custom  which  originated  in  the  horse 
power  and  is  to  be  regretted. 

At  the  time  separators  were  run  with  horse  power  they 
were  smaller  than  they  are  now  and  with  fewer  acces- 
sories. At  that  time  12  horses,  by  being  overworked, 
would  run  the  separator,  but  now  the  separators  are 
larger  and  are  equipped  with  self-feeders,  band  cutters, 
wind  stackers,  weighers,  etc.  All  of  this  causes  the  new 
separators  to  run  several  horse  power  harder  than  the 
old  ones.  Although  the  present  separators  require  much 
more  power  than  the  former  ones  did,  competition  has 
kept  the  rating  of  the  engines  down  to  that  of  the  horse 
power,  while  factories  are  building  them  much  larger. 
Most  traction  engines  will  develop  at  the  brake  three 
times  as  much  power  as  their  rated  capacity. 

A  better  way  to  judge  the  capacity  than  by  its  com- 
mercial rating  is  by  the  diameter  of  the  cylinder,  the 
length  of  stroke,  and  the  number  of  revolutions  of  the 
flywheel  a  minute. 

HANDLING   AN    ENGINE 

543.  Starting  the  engine. — In  starting  an  engine  the 
operator  should  always  see  that  the  cylinder  cocks  are 
opened.  While  the  engine  has  been  stopped  the  steam 
has  condensed  and  caused  considerable  water  to  form  in 
the  cylinder,  and  if  there  is  not  some  means  of  letting 
this  out  there  is  danger  of  injury  to  the  working  parts. 
Even  if  no  water  has  collected  in  the  cylinder  while  the 
engine  has  been  standing,  the  cylinder  walls  will  be  cold 
and  condense  the  steam  as  it  first  enters.  It  is  also  well 
to  open  the  pet  cocks  from  the  steam  chest  and  allow  the 
water  in  there  to  drain  out,  and  not  be  carried  through 
the  cylinder.  The  throttle  should  be  only  partly  opened 
at  first  in  order  to  allow  the  cylinder  to  hecome  warmed 


396  FARM    MOTORS 

up  before  full  steam  is  turned  on.  If  full  steam  is  turned 
on  at  once  there  is  danger  of  more  water  being  condensed 
than  the  cylinder  cocks  will  carry  away.  If  the  engine 
has  a  reverse  gear,  it  may  be  worked  back  and  forth  and 
thus  both  ends  of  the  cylinder  allowed  to  warm  up  at 
once.  As  soon  as  the  engine  has  reached  its  speed  and 
dry  steam  comes  from  the  cylinder  cocks  they  can  be 
closed  and  the  throttle  thrown  wide  open.  The  cylinder 
lubricator  and  other  oil  cups  can  now  be  started,  and  if 
necessary  the  boiler  pump  or  injector. 

544.  Running  the  engine. — After  the  engine  is  once 
started  all  bearings  should  be  watched  to  see  that  they 
do  not  heat.  When  they  get  so  warm  that  the  hand  can- 
not be  borne  on  them  the  engine  should  be  stopped  and 
the  bearings  loosened.  If  the  engine  runs  properly,  all 
repairs  that  can  be  made  while  the  engine  is  in  motion 
should  be  attended  to:  the  oil  supply  looked  after,  oil 
cups  kept  full,  etc. 

545.  Stopping  the  engine. — To  stop  the  engine  the 
throttle  should  be  closed  and  the  cylinder  cocks  then 
opened.  The  throttle  may  be  closed  quickly  without  in- 
jury to  the  boiler  or  the  cylinder,  providing  there  is 
plenty  of  water  in  the  boiler.  Close  all  lubricators.  The 
cylinder  cocks  should  be  left  open  until  after  the  engine 
starts  again.  If  the  engine  is  stopped  for  only  a  short 
interval,  the  cylinder  walls  will  cool  off  so  little  that  the 
engine  can  be  quickly  started.  It  is  not  well,  however,  to 
start  the  engine  into  full  speed  at  once.  This  throws 
too  much  strain  on  the  working  parts. 

546.  Leaks. — Engines  should  be  occasionally  tested 
for  steam  leaks  past  the  valve  or  the  piston.  The  easiest 
and  surest  method  to  do  this  is  to  use  the  indicator,  but 
wherever  this  is  not  possible  the  valve  can  be  tested  by 
placing  it  in  its  central  position  and  turning  on  steam. 


STEAM    ENGINES  397 

If  there  is  any  leak,  condensed  steam  will  flow  from  the 
cylinder  cocks. 

If  the  valve  is  tight,  leaks  past  the  piston  may  be  found 
by  blocking  the  crosshead  so  as  to  hold  the  piston  in 
one  place,  then  turning  steam  into  one  end  of  the  cylin- 
der. If  water  comes  from  the  cylinder  cock  in  the  other 
end,  steam  is  leaking  past  the  piston. 

It  is  well  to  make  this  test  for  both  ends  of  the  cylinder 
and  with  the  piston  in  two  or  three  positions.  Sometimes 
the  piston  rings  will  allow  the  steam  to  pass  one  way 
and  not  the  other.  Often  there  are  irregularities  in  the 
inside  surface  of  the  cylinder,  and  steam  will  leak  past 
the  piston  when  it  is  in  one  part  of  the  stroke  and  not  in 
another.  Although  a  small  leak  may  not  appear  very 
important,  all  the  steam  which  leaks  past  the  valve  or 
the  piston  passes  off  into  the  exhaust  without  doing 
work.  When  the  valve  leaks  it  should  be  taken  out  and 
scraped  to  a  fit.  If  the  piston  leaks,  new  rings  should  be 
put  in,  and  if  it  continues  to  do  so,  the  cylinder  should 
be  rebored. 

547.  Packing. — There  are  two  classes  of  packing,  pis- 
ton packing  and  sheet  or  gasket  packing.  The  former 
is  to  be  used  where  moving  parts  are  to  be  packed,  such 
as  piston  and  valve  rods.  It  generally  consists  of  some 
sort  of  wicking,  such  as  candle  wicking,  asbestos  wick- 
ing,  hemp  wicking,  or  patent  wicking.  Candle  wicking 
and  hemp  are  good  all-purpose  packings,  but  should  not 
be  left  in  the  packing  box  too  long,  as  they  will  become 
hard  and  cut  the  rod.  Asbestos  wicking  is  good  packing 
for  all  purposes  but  pump  rods.  It  does  not  get  hard  like 
hemp  or  candle  wicking,  but  the  water  on  a  pump  rod 
soon  washes  it  out.  Patented  packings  will  last  longer 
and  not  get  hard  like  the  common  packings.  Gasket  or 
sheet  packings  are.  used  on  pipe  fittings,  manholes,  and 


398  FARM    MOTORS 

handholes,  where  there  is  no  motion.  Such  packing 
should  be  just  thick  enough  to  cover  the  uneven  surfaces 
and  no  more. 

548.  Pounding. — An  engine  which  pounds  is  generally 
loose  or  worn,  and  if  permitted  to  continue  pounding  will 
gradually  become  worse.  The  wrist  and  crank  bearings 
are  those  most  likely  to  pound.  Nevertheless,  there  are 
so  many  other  places  where  the  engine  will  pound  that 
it  is  well  to  look  not  only  at  these  points,  but  at  others. 
An  experienced  engineer  will  have  no  trouble  in  de- 
tecting the  exact  place,  but  a  new  man  should  work 
cautiously.  He  should  block  the  crosshead,  and  then 
turn  the  flywheel  backward  and  forward  an  inch  or  two. 
This  will  tell  whether  the  pound  is  in  the  flywheel,  main 
bearings,  crank  pin  or  wrist  pin.  This  will  not  tell,  how- 
ever, if  the  pound  is  in  the  governor  belt  pulley,  or 
guides.  A  new  engineer  should  not  try  to  take  out  all 
of  the  pound  at  once ;  only  take  up  the  slack  a  trifle  at  a 
time  until  it  is  all  removed.  It  is  better  to  run  a  box  too 
loose  and  have  it  pound  than  too  tight  and  have  it  cut. 
An  engine  may  also  be  loose  in  the  eccentric  and  valve, 
and  cause  pounding,  or  sometimes  it  will  pound  when  out 
of  line.  In  the  former  case  a  little  tightening  will  remove 
the  pound ;  not  too  much,  however,  or  the  eccentric  may 
cut  or  the  valve  bind.  If  the  engineer  thinks  the  shaft 
is  out  of  line,  he  can  detect  it  by  taking  the  front  half  of 
the  crank  bearing  off  the  connecting  rod,  and  then  by  in- 
spection see  if  the  connecting  rod  freely  rests  in  its  posi- 
tion in  the  crank  pm  in  all  parts  of  the  stroke  of  the 
piston. 

549.  Bearings. — All  important  boxes  and  those  which 
are  likely  to  wear  should  be  made  in  halves  with  liners 
between  the  halves.  This  permits  of  taking  up  the  wear, 
without  requiring  a  new  bearing.     Xhe  ideal  bearing  is 


STEAM   ENGINES  399 

a  perfectly  round  hole  with  a  pin  fitting  it  just  close 
enough  to  allow  a  film  of  oil  between  the  hole  and  the 
pin.  The  closer  a  bearing  can  be  made  to  conform  to 
this  the  better. 

As  a  bearing  wears,  a  thick  liner  should  be  taken  out 
and  a  thinner  one  inserted.  Never  take  out  a  thick  liner 
and  then  only  partly  draw  up  the  boxes.  This  makes  a 
loose  bearing  and  will  cause  trouble. 

550.  Lubrication. — Since  the  cylinder  of  the  engine  is 
always  hot  when  running,  oil  is  required  which  will 
stand  higher  temperatures  than  the  oils  for  bearings. 
This  oil  is  generally  known  as  cylinder  oil.  As  a  rule, 
it  is  a  heavier  and  blacker  oil  than  is  generally  used  for 
lubrication.  It  is  of  such  a  nature  that  it  will  stand  the 
heat  in  the  steam  chest  and  the  cylinder.  Ordinary  lubri- 
cating oil  would  be  decomposed  by  the  heat.  The  oil 
used  for  bearings,  such  as  crank,  eccentric,  wrist  pin,  etc., 
is  of  a  lighter  nature  and  is  a  good  grade  of  common 
lubricating  oil.  A  new  engine  requires  more  oil  than  an 
old  one,  and  a  cylinder  when  priming  or  foaming  requires 
more  oil  than  when  running  regularly.  The  amount  of 
oil  to  use  can  be  determined  only  by  experience ;  it  is 
better  to  get  too  much  than  not  enough.  A  good  method 
of  determining  the  amount  of  oil  for  the  cylinder  is  to 
keep  track  for  a  minute  of  the  number  of  drops  which 
pass  through  the  lubricator;  then  take  the  cylinder  head 
off  and  see  if  the  walls  are  bright  and  shiny  and  feel 
oily;  if  so,  the  cylinder  is  getting  enough  oil.  For  bear- 
ings and  other  places,  the  number  of  drops  a  minute 
should  be  determined,  and  then  the  bearings  watched 
to  see  if  they  heat  and  if  there  is  an  excess  of  oil  run- 
ning off. 

551.  Lubricators. —  Owing  to  the  pressure  in  the  steam 
chest  of  an  engine,  some  device  has  to  be  employed  which 


4<X> 


FARM    MOTORS 


will  force  the  oil  into  the  steam  pipe  against  this  pres- 
sure. There  are  several  makes  of  lubricators  on  the 
market.  Fig.  279  shows  the  principle  of  nearly  all  of 
them.  This  lubricator  is  so  arranged  that  the  steam 
condenses  in  the  small  pipe  of  the  lubricator  and  forms 
a  greater  pressure  on  one  side  of  the  oil  than  on  the 
other.     This  forces  the  oil   from  the  valve  to  the  steam 

pipe.  To  fill  the  lubri- 
cator, the  cocks  from 
the  steam  pipe  should  be 
shut  off  so  no  pressure 
can  be  let  in ;  then  the 
small  cock  at  the  bottom 
of  the  lubricator  should 
be  opened  and  the  con- 
densed water  let  out. 
"When  oil  commences  to 
come    instead    of    water 

FIG.   279 — CYLINDER   LUBRICATOR 

the  lubricator  has  been 
drained  enough.  The  cock  can  then  be  closed  and  the 
cap  on  top  taken  off  and  the  oil  poured  in.  Several 
makes  of  oil  pumps  now  on  the  market  are  to  take  the 
place  of  the  lubricator.  They  are  actuated  by  a  lever 
and  arm  from  the  crosshead.  These  pumps  are  more 
positive  than  lubricators  in  their  action  and  not  as  likely 
to  fail  to  operate.  The  only  defect  in  this  form  of  lubri- 
cation is  that  very  few  pumps  have  a  sight  feed  or  a 
glass  which  will  tell  how  much  oil  is  in  the  vessel  that 
contains  it;  thus  it  is  hard  to  tell  whether  the  pump  is 
full  or  empty. 


CHAPTER  XX 
GAS,  OIL  AND  ALCOHOL  ENGINES 

552.  Internal-combustion  engine.  —  The  gasoline  en- 
gine is  of  the  type  known  as  the  internal-combustion 
engine.  Others  of  this  type  are  the  gas  engine,  the 
hydrocarbon  engine,  the  kerosene  engine,  the  oil  engine, 
and  the  distillate  engine. 

In  the  steam  engine  combustion  takes  place  in  the 
furnace;  the  heat  is  diffused  through  the  boiler,  gener- 
ating steam ;  this  steam  is  then  transferred  by  means  of 
pipes  to  the  engine.  Through  all  these  operations  a 
great  deal  of  heat  energy  is  lost  by  radiation.  In  the 
internal-combustion  engine  the  fuel  is  put  under  high 
pressure  by  the  inward  movement  of  the  piston.  While 
in  this  condition  it  is  ignited;  the  consequent  burning 
causes  a  very  great  expansive  force,  and  this  force,  act- 
ing directly  upon  the  moving  parts  of  the  engine,  gives 
very  little  opportunity  for  radiation. 

The  principle  of  all  internal-combustion  engines  is  the 
same,  so  in  this  chapter  the  gasoline  engine  will  be  used 
as  a  basis  of  discussion.  The  gas  and  the  gasoline  en- 
gine are  so  nearly  identical  that  they  may  be  treated  in 
the  same  manner. 

553.  Early  development. — At  first  the  development  of  this  en- 
gine was  very  slow.  Huyghens  in  1680  proposed  the  use  of  gun- 
powder. Papin  in  1690  continued  the  experiments,  but  without  suc- 
cess. Their  plan  was  to  explode  the  powder  in  an  enclosed  vessel, 
forcing  the  air  out  through  check  valves,  thus  producing  a  partial 
vacuum,  causing  the  piston  to  descend  by  atmospheric  pressure  and 


402 


FARM    MOTORS 


gravity.  The  few  experimenters  who  took  up  the  work  continued  in 
this  line  with  more  or  less  improvements  until  i860,  when  Lenoir 
brought  out  the  first  really  practical  engine.  This  was  very  similar 
to  a  high-pressure  steam  engine  using  gas  and  air.  Among  these 
early  experimenters,  those  who  seem  most  prominent  are  Barnet,  in 
1838,  inventor  of  flame  ignition  and  compression,  and  Barsanti  and 
Matteusee,  who,  in  1857,  produced  the  free  piston. 

554.  Later  development. — Million  gave  the  first  clear  ideas  of 
the  advantages  of  compression,  and  M.  Beau  de  Rochas  went  further 
and  produced  a  theory  analogous  to  our  present  type.  In  1867  Messrs. 
Otto  and  Langdon  produced  a  free  piston  engine  which  superseded 
all  previous  efforts,  but  it  was  left  to  Mr.  Otto  to  put  into  practice 


FIG.  280 — PARTS  OF  GASOLINE  ENGINE 


GAS,   OIL  AND  ALCOHOL   ENGINES  4O3 

in  1876  the  first  engine  of  commercial  value.  All  present-day  types 
work  on  the  same  principle  as  Otto's,  but  under  fewer  practical 
difficulties. 

555.  Types  of  gasoline  engines. — Otto  was  the  first  to 
put  into  practice  the  idea  of  compressing  the  gas  and  air 
mixture  before  igniting.  This  gave  rise  to  the  name  of 
Otto  cycle,  which  is  now  used  in  all  engines.  Com- 
pression is  one  of  the  important  things  which  determine 
the  economy  of  the  engine ;  theoretically,  the  efficiency 
of  the  engine  depends  upon  the  compression  pressure. 
However,  it  is  not  possible  to  increase  the  compression 
pressure  indefinitely  because  the  charge  pre-ignites  and 
causes  the  engine  to  pound.  It  is  desirable,  however,  to 
use  as  high  a  compression  as  possible. 

As  stated  before,  practically  all  the  engines  used  to- 
day are  designed  to  follow  the  Otto  cycle.  However, 
they  are  divided  into  two  distinct  types,  four-cycle  en- 
gines and  two-cycle  engines. 

556.  Four-cycle  engines. — The  term  cycle  is  applied  to 
the  entire  operation  of  converting  heat  into  mechanical 
energy.     In  the  four-cycle  engine  four  strokes  of  the  piston 


FIG.  281 — SUCTION  STROKE  OF  FOUR-CYCLE  ENGINE 


404 


FARM    MOTORS 


FIG.    282 — COMPRESSION   AND    IGNITION    STROKE    OF    FOUR-CYCLE    ENGINE 

or  two  complete  revolutions  of  the  crank  are  necessary 
to  complete  this  cycle,  hence  the  name  four-cycle.  These 
strokes  may  be  enumerated  as  follows :  The  piston  makes 
one  forward  stroke,  drawing  into  the  cylinder  through 
the  irrlet  a  charge  of  fuel  and  air.  This  is  called  suction 
(Fig.  281).     A  second   stroke   compresses   this   charge 


FIG.   2^2 — EXPANSION   AND  RELEASE  STROKE  OF  FOUR-CYCLE  ENGINE 


GAS,   OIL  AND   ALCOHOL   ENGINES 


405 


FIG.  284 — EXHAUST   STROKE  OF  FOUR-CYCLE  ENGINE 

into  the  clearance  space  of  the  cylinder  (Fig.  282).  This 
stroke  is  called  compression.  Just  before  the  crank 
passes  dead  center  the  charge  is  ignited.  Owing  to  the 
heat  released,  the  gases  expand,  and  this  expansion  of 
gases  acts  upon  the  piston,  driving  it  forward  during  the 
third  stroke,  which  is  called  expansion  (Fig.  283).  This 
stroke  is  the  only  working  stroke  of  the  cycle.  During 
the  fourth  stroke  the  exhaust  valve  is  forced  open  by 
mechanical  means  and  the  piston  crowds  the  burned 
gases  out.    This  stroke  is  called  exhaust  (Fig.  284). 

557.  The  two-cycle  engine  completes  the  cycle  in  two 
strokes  of  the  piston  and  from  this  fact  derives  its  name. 
In  this  type  of  engine  there  must  be,  besides  the  cylinder, 
a  compression  chamber,  which  may  be  separate,  which 
may  be  the  crank  case  enclosed,  or  which  may  be  the  front 
end  of  the  cylinder.  To  illustrate  the  cycle  in  this  type 
of  engine,  the  enclosed  crank  case  type  is  used.  That  is, 
the  cylinder  and  the  crank  case  are  both  gas  tight  and 
practically  in  one  piece.  However,  the  two  chambers  are 
separated  by  the  piston.    Let  the  piston  be  at  the  crank 


406  FARM    MOTORS 

end  of  the  cylinder,  then  start  it  up.  This  action  tends 
to  produce  a  vacuum  in  the  crank  case,  but  instead  of 
doing  so  the  charge  rushes  in  through  the  check  valve  A 
(Fig.  285)  and  fills  the  space.  Now  start  the  piston 
down  again,  compressing  the  charge  in  the  crank  case 
(Fig.  286)  until  the  piston  has  opened  the  inlet  port, 
when  the  charge  rushes  from  that  end  of  the  cylinder  up 


FIG.  285 


FIG.    286 


into  the  other.  As  the  piston  starts  back  again  (Fig.  287) 
it  closes  the  openings  and  compresses  the  charge  now  in 
the  head  end.  At  the  same  time  it  is  doing  this  a  new 
charge  is  being  drawn  into  the  crank  case.  When  the 
piston  reaches  the  upper  end  of  the  stroke  explosion  takes 
place  and  the  expansion  forces  the  piston  down  (Fig.  288), 
compressing  the  charge  in  the  crank  case  and  expanding 
the  one  in  the  cylinder.    When  the  piston  has  passed  the 


GAS,   OIL  AND   ALCOHOL   ENGINES 


407 


port  openings  the  burnt  gas  rushes  out  through  the  ex- 
haust port  and  the  new  charge  comes  in  through  the  in- 
let port.  Thus  we  see  that  when  the  piston  is  compress- 
ing a  charge  in  the  cylinder  a  new  charge  is  being  taken 
into  the  crank  case,  and  when  the  charge  in  the  cylinder 
is  expanding  the  gas  in  the  crank  case  is  being  com- 
pressed. 


FIG.  287 — SUCTION,  COMPRESSION 
AND  IGNITION  STROKE  OF  TWO- 
CYCLE  ENGINE 


FIG.  288 — ^EXPANSION,  EXHAUST 
AND  INLET  STROKE  OF  TWO- 
CYCLE    ENGINE 


558.  Construction.  —  (Only  the  four-cycle  engine  will 
be  considered  hereafter.)  The  parts  of  a  gasoline  engine- 
necessary  to  be  examined  for  proper  construction  are : 
cylinder  head,  cylinder,  base,  piston,  and  piston  rings, 
connecting  rod,  crank  shaft,  flywheels,  valves,  governor, 
carburetor,  ignitor,  and  cooling  device. 


4o8 


FARM   MOTORS 


Cylinder  head. — The  cylin- 
der head  (Fig.  289)  should 
have  a  device  for  cooling.  If 
water  is  used  for  this,  the  in- 
side of  the  head  should  be  at 
least  }i  inch  thick  for  a  5- 
inch  cylinder  and  the  water 
jacket  not  less  than  %.  inch. 
These  dimensions  increase 
with  the  size  of  the  engine. 
Cylinder.  —  The  cylinder 
(Fig.  290)  should  be  bored 
perfectly  smooth  and  round, 
and  should  be  free  from  all  flaws  and  imperfections.  It 
may  have  the  same  thickness  of  castings  as  the  head. 

Base. — The  base  (Fig.  291)  should  be  designed  to  carry 
the  C3dinder,  engine  frame,  and  flywheels  in  a  well-bal- 
anced condition. 


FIG.  289 — CYLINDER  HEAD 


FIG.  290 — CYLINDER 


GAS,   OIL  AND   ALCOHOL   ENGINES 


409 


Piston. — The  piston  (Fig.  292)  is  one  of  the  important 
parts  of  the  engine.  It  should  be  of  good  length  to  carry 
itself  without  binding.  The  piston  pin  should  be  near 
the  middle  and  as  long  and  as  large  as  possible.     In 


FIG.  291 — ^BASE 

small  engines  the  piston  should  be  about  1/200  of  an  inch 
smaller  than  the  cylinder,  and  in  larger  sizes  it  should 
be  about  1/32  of  an  inch  smaller.  The  space  on  the  head 
end  of  the  piston  beyond  the  last  ring  should  be  about 
1/16  of  an  inch  less  in  diameter  than  the  rest  of  the 
piston. 

Piston  rings. — The  number  of  rings  (Fig.  292)  varies 
from  three  in  cylinders  of  5-inch  diameter  and  less  up 
to  eight  in  20-inch  cylinders.     If  the  engine  is  of  the 


FIG.  292 — PISTON  AND  RINGS 


vertical  type,  there  should  be  a  ring  at  the  lower  end  of 
the  piston.  This  ring  will  prevent  "oil  pumping."  The 
rings  should  break  joints,  and  if  one  edge  fits  closer  to 
the  cylinder  than  the  other,  the  close-fitting  edge  should 


4IO 


FARM    MOTORS 


be  toward  the  explosion  end.     All  rings  should  be  cres- 
cent-shaped.    This  causes  an  equal  pressure  all  around. 
The  connecting  rod. — The  connecting  rod    (Fig.  293) 


FIG.  293 — CONNECTING  ROD 

should  be  of  forged  steel  and  of  the  right  weight  to  carry 
the  load.  A  simple  bearing  is  sufficient  at  the  wrist  pin, 
but  at  the  crank  end  the  boxings  should  be  held  in  place 
by  means  of  two  bolts.  All  parts  should  be  in  perfect 
alignment. 

Crank  shaft  (Fig.  294). — It  is  essential  that  the  crank 
shaft  be  heavy  enough  to  withstand  the  sudden  shocks 
which  come  to  it  from  the  explosions,  and  it  should  also 
carry  the  heavy  flywheels  without  springing.  The  bear- 
ings should  be  long  and  in  perfect  alignment.  Their  line 
of  centers  must  be  exactly  at  right  angles  with  the  cylin- 
der. A  good  way  to  detect  a  weak  crank  shaft  is  to 
notice  whether  the  flywheels  wobble  at  each  explosion 
of  the  engine. 

Flywheels  (Fig.  295). — These  are  necessarily  heavy 
and  massive,  but  not  necessarily  ungainly  in  appear- 
ance. Loganecker  says : 
"At  a  medium  speed, 
which  may  be  based  on 
about  225  revolutions  for 
25  H.P.  to  375  for  2  H.P., 
100  pounds  to  the  horse 
power  will  not  be  very  far 
FIG.  294-cRANK  SHAFT  out  of  thc  wav-     The  di- 


GAS,   OIL  AND   ALCOHOL   ENGINES  4II 

ameter  may  range  from  28  inches  on  the  small  engine  to 
60  inches  on  the  larger  size."  The  above  weight  is  to  be 
divided  between  the  two  wheels. 


FIG.  295 — FLYWHEELS 

Valves  (Fig.  296). — It  makes  no  great  difference  where 
the  valves  are  located,  just  so  they  are  close  to  and  con- 
nected to  the  clearance  space.  A  good  rule  to  follow  for 
size  is :  Inlet  valve  diameter  should  be  five-sixteenths 
diameter  of  the  cylinder,  and  the  exhaust  valve  about 
seven-sixteenths. 

559.  Governors. — There  are  two  types  of  gasoline  en- 
gine governors  in  general  use.  These  are  the  throttling 
governor  and  the  hit-or-miss  governor. 

Throttling  governors  vary  the  amount  of  gasoline  mix- 
ture admitted  to  the  cylinder.  Before  the  engine  has 
reached  its  normal  speed,  or  when  it  is  carrying  a  full 
load,  each  charge  is  a  full  charge,  with  as  near  a  perfect 
mixture  as  possible.  Consequently  the  normal  compres- 
sion pressure  for  that  engine  is  attained  and  the  engine 
does  its  work  with  its  greatest  economy.  When  the  en- 
gine is  doing  only  a  part  of  its  rated  capacity  of  work, 
the  throttle  acts.  This  reduces  the  volume  of  mixture 
which  enters  the  cylinder,  but  the  space  within  the  cylin- 


412 


FARM    MOTORS 


mxm 


FIG.  296 — VALVES 


der  to  be  filled  is  the  same ; 
consequently  the  compres- 
sion pressure  is  not  as  great 
as  it  should  be  and  the  en- 
gine is  not  economical  with 
fuel.  Often  the  load  in  an 
engine  is  small  enough  for 
the  charge  to  be  throttled 
down  until  of  such  small 
volume  as  not  to  ignite,  but 
simply  pass  off  to  the  ex- 
haust unburned.  Throttling- 
governor  gasoline  engines  are  not  as  economical  with  a 
variable  load  as  the  hit-or-miss  type  of  governed  engines. 
Plowever,  their  motion  is  much  more  steady,  and  often 
the  matter  of  economy  is  waived  in  order  to  secure  the 
greater  uniformity  of  speed. 

Hit-or-miss  type  of  governor. — In  the  hit-or-miss  type 
of  governor  the  amount  of  mixture  drawn  in  for  an  ex- 
plosion remains  at  all  times  a  constant,  and  the  govern- 
ing is  accomplished  by  cutting  out  all  admissions  while 
the  engine  is  running  faster  than  normal  speed.  This 
method  of  governing  is  usually  accomplished  by  holding 
the  exhaust  valve  open  and  the  inlet  valve  closed  until 
the  engine  falls  a  trifle  below  speed,  when  the  exhaust 
valve  closes  and  new  charges  are  taken  into  the  cylinder. 
Fig.  297  shows  the  manner  in  which  this  style  of  govern- 
ing is  accomplished.  When  the  speed  of  the  engine  is 
above  normal  the  governor  sleeve  C,  which  is  in  the 
crank  shaft,  is  drawn  out,  and,  acting  on  the  detent  roller 
D,  throws  the  detent  lever  E  down  so  it  becomes  en- 
gaged in  the  hook-up  stop  F.  The  hook-up  stop  F,  being 
connected  to  the  exhaust  valve  rod  //,  holds  the  exhaust 
valve  open.    By  reference  to  Fig.  298  it  will  be  seen  how 


GAS,   OIL   AND   ALCOHOL    ENGINES 


413 


the  inlet  valve  is  held  closed.     There  are  three  general 
methods  of  using  weights  to  accomplish  hit-or-miss  gov- 


FIG.    297 — MECHANISM   FOR   HIT-OR-MISS   GOVERNOR 

erning  as  explained  above.  They  are  :  By  having  weights 
in  the  flywheels  (Fig.  299)  ;  by  having  weights  in  a  spe- 
cial shaft  (Fig.  300)  ;  and  by  means  of  an  inertia  weight 


FIG.  298 — INLET  VALVE  LOCK 


FIG.   299 — FLYWHEEL  GOVERNOR 


414 


FARM    MOTORS 


FIG.  300 — HALL  GOVERNOR 

(Fig.  301).  The  latter  type  of  governor  works  on  the 
principle  that  when  the  engine  is  running  at  normal 
speed  the  weight  does  not  get  enough  throw  to  cause 
the  detent  to  catch  in  the  hook-up  stop,  but  when  the 
speed  is  increased  above  normal  the  weight  is  thrown 
far  enough  to  accomplish  this. 

560.  Carburetor. — Before  gasoline  can  be  used  in  an 
engine  for  fuel  it  must  be  converted  into  a  vapor  or  into 
a  gas.  This  process  of  converting  the  liquid  into  a  gas 
is  called  carburetion,  and  the  device  by  which  it  is 
accomplished  is  called  the  carburetor.  It  is  by  means  of 
the  carburetor  that  a  proper  mixture  of  gasoline  and  air 
is  made  for  combustion  in  the  cylinder,  A  proper  mix- 
ture is  one  of  the  important  functions  of  successful  gaso- 
line engine  operation. 


GAS,   OIL  AND  ALCOHOL   ENGINES 


415 


FIG.    301 — PENDULUM  GOVERNOR 


When  the  liquid  gasoline  is  converted  into  a  vapor  its 
volume  is  increased  about  1,500  times.  To  make  a  strong 
explosive  mixture  the  vapor  must  be  diluted  from  8  to 
13  times  the  volume  of  the  air;  the  air  in  this  case  supply- 
ing the  oxygen.   Thus  we  see  that  the  volume  of  gasoline  to 

the  volume  of  air  used  is  in  the 
proportion  of  aboi^t  i  to  12,000 
or  to  19,500.  It  follows  that  the 
carburetor  must  necessarily  be  a 
very  delicate  arrangement.  An 
engine  will  not  run  satisfactorily 
unless  the  mixture  is  very  nearly 
correct.  There  is  a  multitude 
of  surface,  wick,  gauze,  spray, 
atomizing:    and    float-feed    car- 

FIG.  302 — PRINCIPLE  OF  THE         -  ,  ^  , 

CARBURETOR  burctors  and  generator  valves  on 


4i6 


FARM    MOTORS 


the  market.  Practically  all  of  these  devices  depend  upon  the 
liquid  fuel  being  caught  by  the  incoming  air  and  atomized  on 
its  way  to  the  cylinder.  Fig.  302  illustrates  the  principle  of 
the  carburetor.  Gasoline  flows  into  the  chamber  A ;  air 
enters  at  B  and  passes  through  the  chamber  C  into  the  en- 
gine cylinders.  As  the  air  passes  the  tube  D  it  takes  up  the 
charge  of  gasoline  which  has  been  admitted  through  the  nee- 
dle valve  E,  and  carries  it  on  into  the  engine  with  itself. 
Since  the  air  passes  the  tube  D  at  a  velocity  of  about  6,000 
feet  a  minute,  it  immediately  atomizes  the  gasoline  and  forms 
it  into  a  gas.    ¥\g.  303  is  a  commercial  carburetor  wherein 

the  gasoline  is  kept  at  a 
constant  level  in  the  reser- 
voir. Fig.  304  shows  a 
float- feed  carburetor,  the 
principle  of  which  is  illus- 
trated in  Fig.  305.  As  fast 
as  gasoline  is  taken  from 
the  tube  A  the  float  B 
drops  and  more  gasoline 
enters  the  reservoir  C. 

The  charge  of  gasoline 
taken  into  the  engine  each 
time  is  so  small  that  the 
amount  can  be  regulated 
only  by  a  needle  valve. 
Such  valves  as  are  used 
about  the  pump  are  far 

PIG.  303-CONSTANT-LEVEL  CARBURETOR      ^^^    ^^^^^        It    is    alsO    due 

to  this  minuteness  of  the  charge  that  the  gasoline  has  to  be 
kept  at  a  constant  level  in  the  reservoir  of  the  carburetors. 
For  instance,  if  the  carburetor  illustrated  in  Fig.  303  has  no 
overflow,  but  the  attendant  endeavors  to  regulate  the  amount 
of  gasoline  in  the  reservoir  by  means   of  the  valve  in 


GAS,   OIL  AND  ALCOHOL   ENGINES 

the  feed  pipe,  he  will  set  his 
valve  so  that  the  engine 
runs  well  under  a  full  load, 
but  when  the  load  becomes 
less  fewer  charges  will  be 
drawn  in  and  the  pump  will 
throw  the  same  amount  of 
gasoline.  Consequently  the 
reservoir  will  fill  so  full 
that  when  the  engine  does  fig.  304— float  feed  carburetor 
take  a  charge  there  will  be  so  much  gasoline  in  it 
that  there  will  not  be  complete  combustion,  and  as  a 
result  the  explosion  will  be  weak  and  the  exhaust  gas 
will  be  black  smoke.  The  carburetor  should  be  near  the 
cylinder  to  enable  the  mixture  to  be  easily  controlled. 
561.  Igniters. — There  are  two  general  types  of  ignitors, 


7'///////////////////777/. 


n 


FIG.  305— PRINCIPLE  OF  THE  FLOAT-FEED  CARBURETOR 


V 


4i8 


FARM    MOTORS 


the  hot  tube  and  the  electric  spark.  The  latter  type,  which 
is  most  popular  in  America  at  present,  may  be  divided 
into  two  classes,  the  contact  spark  and  the  jump  spark. 
Contact  spark  (Fig.  306). — It  has  been  noticed  that 
when  a  break  is  made  in  an  electric  circuit  a  spark  takes 
place,  and  it  is  upon  this  principle  that  the  contact  gaso- 
line ignitor  depends.     The  charges  of  the  fuel  mixture 


FIG.  306 — CONTACT-SPARK  IGNITOR  FIG.    307 — JUMP-SPARK    IGNITOR 


FIG.     308 — WIRING    SYSTEM    FOR    JUMP- 
SPARK  IGNITION 


are  ignited  by  causing 
this  break  to  be  made 
inside  of  the  cylinder. 
The  quicker  this  break 
is  made,  the  more  pro- 
nounced the  spark.  The 
spark  is  always  made 
larger  and  more  pro- 
nounced by  including  in 
the  circuit  a  spark  coil. 
Jump  spark. — The 
jump-spark  ignitor 
(Fig.  307)  has  within 
the  cylinder  two  points 
insulated  from  each 
other  and  separated  by 


GAS,   OIL  AND   ALCOHOL    ENGINES 


419 


a  very  short  distance.  It  differs  from  the  contact-spark 
circuit  in  that  there  must  be  an  induction  coil.  This 
coil  requires  a  primary  current  leading  to  it  from  the 
batteries,  and  a  secondary  current  leading  to  the  spark 
points.  This  latter  current  has  the  characteristic  of 
jumping  from  one  point  to  the  other  in  the  form  of  a 
Spark,  thus  igniting  the  charge  in  the  engine  (Fig.  308). 
562.  Batteries. — In  the  majority  of  cases  the  currents 
for  electric  ignitors  are  furnished  b}^  batteries  composed 
of  either  dry  or  wet  cells.  It  is  very  difficult  to  determine 
without  the  aid  of  proper  instruments  when  a  battery 
has  been  exhausted  to  the  point  where  it  does  not  fur- 
nish sufficient  current.  Upon  trying  an  exhausted  bat- 
tery out,  it  will  in  all  cases  give  a  satisfactory  spark. 
This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  batteries  when  exhausted  tend 
to  recover  slightly  during  the  rest  and  are  able  to  furnish 
current  for  a  few  ignitions.  Upon  starting  an  engine  with 
an  exhausted  battery,  a 
few  ignitions  will  take 
place  satisfactorily,  but 
later  it  will  miss  fire, 
due  to  the  weakness  of 
the  battery.  Often 
when  a  battery  is  be- 
coming run  down  and 
the  engine  is  still  run- 
ning the  latter  will  take 
in  several  charges,  but 


FIG.    309 — WIRING  SYSTEM   FOR  BATTERIES 
AND   DYNAMOS 


no  explosion  will  re- 
sult; then  there  is  an 
explosion  and  a  great  report  from  the  exhaust.  This  is 
because  the  explosion  in  the  engine  ignites  the  unex- 
ploded  charges  which  have  previously  passed  through 
into  the  exhaust  chamber. 


4^0  FARM    MOTORS 

563.  Dynamos  and  magnetos. — Since  the  battery  is  ex- 
pensive and  short  lived,  other  provisions  are  made  for 
supplying  electric  currents.  One  of  the  most  satisfactory 
of  these  is  by  connecting  the  engine  to  a  form  of  magneto 
or  dynamo.  The  amount  of  power  needed  to  drive  a 
dynamo  is  exceedingly  small,  but  at  all  times  sufficient 
current  is  provided  to  give  reliable  ignition.  A  magneto 
differs  from  a  dynamo  in  that  the  pole  pieces  of  the  mag- 
netos are  made  of  permanent  magnets,  while  those  of  the 
dynamo  are  electromagnets. 

It  is  often  easier  to  start  an  engine  with  a  magneto 
than  with  a  dynamo.  However,  after  speed  is  reached, 
the  dynamo,  as  a  rule,  is  a  little  more  satisfactory  than 
the  magneto.  These  small  dynamos  are  usually  provided 
with  a  self-governing  device  which  will  regulate  the 
speed  and  in  this  way  obtain  the  proper  voltage  foi 
ignition. 

564.  Cooling  of  gasoline  engines. — There  are  three 
methods  of  carrying  the  excess  heat  away  from  the  gaso- 
line engine  cylinder,  namely:  (1)  air  cooled;  (2)  water 
cooled ;  and  (3)  oil  cooled. 

The  air-cooled  engine  (Fig.  310)  is  provided  with  ribs 
or  flanges  extending  from  the  cylinder,  which  gives  up  a 
certain  amount  of  heat  to  the  air.  This  may  be  assisted 
by  a  draft  of  air  blown  upon  the  cylinder  by  a  fan,  bring- 
ing more  air  in  contact  with  the  flanges.  Air-cooled  en- 
gines are  necessarily  of  small  units,  but  where  the  engine 
is  small  and  exposed  to  freezing  weather  it  is  preferable 
to  any  other. 

Water-cooled  engines  are  the  type  in  most  general  use, 
and  water  is  perhaps  the  best  means  of  carrying  the  ex- 
cess heat  from  the  cylinder.  There  are  three  general 
plans  in  use  for  cooling  with  water.  One  is  to  have  a 
large  tank  sitting  near  and  connected  to  the  engine  (Fig. 


GAS,   OIL  AND  ALCOHOL   ENGINES 


421 


^^^jjjj^mm^ji^^^ggj  ^ 

t 

fSji 

y 

(»: 

li 

l^^9k:'^^H 

i;^ rpvi 

i  \ 

'  '■''^MiMifcSi'^liM11illilr?y^             ^ 

tl-.-.. 

'A 

FIG.    310 — AIR-COOLED  ENGINE 


422  FARM    MOTORS 

315).  One  connection  should  be  from  the  lowest  part  of 
the  water  jacket  to  the  lower  part  of  the  tank ;  the  other 
should  be  from  the  upper  part  of  the  water  jacket  to  the 
top  of  the  tank.    The  heat  from  the  engine  causes  circula- 


FIG.   311 — CIRCULATING   PUMP  SYSTEM   OF   COOLING 

tion  similar  to  that  in  a  boiler.  Another  plan  (Fig.  311) 
is  to  provide  some  way  for  the  water  to  fall  through  the 
air  and  thus  cool  itself  by  evaporation.  In  this  plan  a  cir- 
culating pump  is  necessary.  The  third  method  is  to 
allow  a  stream  of  water  to  run  continually  through  the 
engine.  The  first  way  is  the  most  economical  and  possi- 
bly the  most  satisfactory  where  there  is  plenty  of  room 
and  no  danger  of  frost.  The  second  method  is  coming 
into  general  use  because  it  takes  less  space  and  does  not 
require  so  much  water  at  once.  All  late  portable  engines 
are  equipped  with  this  device  for  cooling.    For  stationary 


GAS,   OIL  AND   ALCOHOL   ENGINES 


423 


engines  and  where  the  amount  of  water  used  may  be  un- 
limited, the  constant-flow  method  is  considered  the  best, 
since  by  this  means  the  water  can  be  drained  from  the 
jacket  every  time  the  engine  is  shut  down,  and  turned  in 
again  upon  starting,  and  thus  avoid  the  danger  of 
freezing. 

Open-jacket  cooling. — Engines  are  now  coming  upon  the 
market  which  have  the  open-jacket  method  of  cooling. 
The  casting  for  the  water  jacket  is  extended  so  it  forms 
a  reservoir  upon  the  top  of  the  engine  (Fig.  311a).  This 
reservoir  is  open  at  the  top  and  holds  but  a  few  gallons 
of  water.  As  the  engine  heats,  the  water  is  allowed  to 
boil  and  evaporate.     Since  there  is  only  a  pailful  or  so  of 

water  in  the  engine,  it  is 
but  a  small  matter  to  drain 
the  engine  and  then  refill 
in  cold  weather. 

Oil  cooling  system. — By 
having  a  radiator  and  cir- 
culating pump,  oil  is  used 
for  cooling  where  engines 
are  exposed  to  freezing 
temperature. 

Often  chemicals  are  used 
in  water  to  prevent  freez- 
ing. Calcium  chloride  is 
the  most  common  of  these. 
The  proportions  generally 
used  are  5  pounds  of  the 
chemical  to  10  gallons  of 
water.  Whenever  possible, 
the  use  of  chemicals  should 
be  avoided;  they  attack 
either  the  tank  or  the  engine  castings. 


FIG.    31 1  A— OPEN- JACKET    SYSTEM 
OF    COOLING 


424  FARM    MOTORS 

565.  Gasoline  engine  indicator  diagram. — The  highest  pressure 
obtained  in  the  average  steam  engine  cylinder  rarely  exceeds  175 
pounds  to  the  square  inch.  In  gasoline  engines  the  average  maxi- 
mum pressure  is  about  300  pounds  a  square  inch,  and  it  often  ex- 
ceeds 400  pounds  a  square  inch.  Since  the  pressures  are  so  high 
in  the  gasoline  engine,  either  the  spring  has  to  be  made  stiffer  in 
the  indicator  or  else  the  piston  made  smaller.  Either  method  is 
utilized  with  success  in  indicator  work.  All  parts  of  the  gasoline 
engine  indicator,  excepting  the  spring,  are  the  same  as  those  of  the 
steam  engine  indicator.  In  the  steam  engine  the  working  fluid  is 
admitted  to  the  cylinder  ready  to  perform  its  work  on  the  piston. 
In  the  gasoline  engine  this  is  not  the  case.  The  working  fluid  enters 
the  cylinder  in  the  form  of  a  gasoline  fuel,  which  has  to  be  com- 
pressed and  burned  before  it  is  ready  for  use.  Since  these  opera- 
tions take  place  in  the  engine  cylinder,  the  gasoline  engine  indicator 
diagram  is  different  from  that  of  the  steam  engine.  Fig.  312  is  a 
typical  gasoline  engine  indicator  diagram  and  can  be  followed  out 
thus:  XY  is  the  atmospheric  line;  ABC  is  the  line  produced  by  the 
suction  stroke  of  the  piston ;  CDE  is  the  compression  line ;  E  is  the 
point  of  ignition ;  EFG  is  the  line  produced  by  the  increase  in  pres- 
sure as  the  gas  burns;  GHI  is  the  expansion  stroke  line;  /  is  the 
point  of  release;  IC  is  the  exhaust  line  and  CJA  is  the  exhaust 
stroke  line.  If  the  inlet  valve  is  opened  automatically  the  suction 
stroke  line  falls  far  below  atmospheric  pressure,  but  if  it  is  opened 
mechanically  the  line  ABC  will  fall  only  a  short  distance  below  the 
line  XV.  The  indicator  diagram  shows  as  clearly  what  is  the  mat- 
ter with  a  gasoline  engine  as  it  does  with  a  steam  engine.  Fig. 
313  shows  cards  from  engines  where  ignition  is  too  late;  Fig.  314, 
cards  which  indicate  too  early  ignition. 

566.  Losses  in  a  gasoline  engine. — If  it  were  possible 
to  utilize  all  the  heat  in  the  fuel  in  a  charge  of  gasoline, 
there  would  be  no  more  economical  method  of  producing 
power,  but  the  mechanical  difficulties  which  have  to  be 
overcome  are  so  great  that  only  about  25  per  cent  of  the 
fuel  is  converted  into  applicable  work.  The  principal 
losses  of  a  gasoline  engine  are:  radiation  of  heat,  heat 
passed  ofif  in  the  exhaust  gases,  and  heat  lost  by  leakages. 
At  the  instant  explosion  takes  place  in  the  engine  cylinder 
the  temperature  at  the  center  of  this  explosion  is  esti- 


GAS,   OIL  AND  ALCOHOL   ENGINES 


425 


mated  to  be  about  3,000°  F.  Since  cast  iron  melts  at 
about  2,300°,  a  great  deal  of  the  heat  of  the  explosion 
must  be  immediately  carried  off  by  radiation  through  the 
walls  of  the  cylinder.  In  order  to  utilize  all  the  heat  left 
in  the  gases  after  the  loss  by  radiation  is  deducted,  the 

cylinder  would  have  to  be  so 
long  that  the  gases  could 
expand  to  atmospheric  pres- 
sure. This  is  a  mechanical 
impossibility.  And  it  has 
been  decided  that  the  most 
practical  length  of  cylinder  is 
such  that  the  stroke  of  the 
piston  is  about  twice  as  long 
as  the  diameter  of  the  engine  cylinder.  Under  these  con- 
ditions the  pressure  at  release  is  generally  about  40  pounds, 
and  the  exhaust  gases  are  still  hot  enough  so  that  they  pro- 
duce a  dull  red  flame.  These  two  losses  are  the  greatest; 
and  the  third  loss,  that  is,  the  loss  past  the  piston  rings,  is 
due  to  the  fact  that  it  is  impossible  to  have  a  joint  be- 
tween moving  parts  perfectly  tight. 


FIG.  313 — ^TOO  LATE  IGNITION  FIG.   3I4 — ^TOO  EARLY   IGNITION 


426  FARM    MOTORS 

567.  Indicated  horse  power. — The   formula  for  indicated  horse 
power  in  the  gasoline  engine  is : 

PLAN 


H.  P. 


33,000 


where 


P  =:  mean  effective  pressure, 

L  =  length  of  stroke  in  feet, 

A  =  area  of  piston  in  square  inches, 

N  =^  number  of  explosions  a  minute. 

It  will  be  seen  that  this  formula  is  the  same  as  that  for  steam 
engines,  excepting  that  N  represents  the  number  of  single  explosions 
a  minute  in  the  gasoline  engine  formula,  instead  of  the  number  of 
revolutions  a  minute,  with  two  impulses  for  each  revolution,  as  in 
the  steam  engine. 

568.  Testing. — To  make  a  complete  test  of  a  gasoline 
engine  requires  a  great  deal  of  expensive  apparatus.  Not 
only  is  this  apparatus  needed,  but  the  one  doing  the  test- 
ing must  have  a  very  good  knowledge  of  science  as  far 
as  it  pertains  to  heat  and  engines.  However,  a  very  sim- 
ple apparatus  can  be  arranged  so  that  any  farmer,  if  he 
cares  to  take  the  trouble,  can  make  a  test  which  will  cover 
all  matters  as  far  as  he  is  concerned.  The  formula  for 
B.H.P.  is  the  same  as  that  given  in  Chapter  I.  for 
steam  engines,  and  the  same  brake  can  be  used.  A  speed 
indicator  can  be  procured  *for  a  dollar,  and  a  set  of  scales 
or  spring  balances  can  be  easily  secured.  It  will  require 
two  men,  who  must  work  simultaneously.  Before  start- 
ing to  make  the  test  it  will  be  well  to  draw  up  a  form 
about  as  follows : 


Test 

1 

2 

3 

Name  of  engine 

Rated  horse  power 

Weight  of  brake  on  scales,  engine  still 

Weight  on  scales,  engine  loaded 

Net  brake  load  (G) 

Length  of  brake  arm  in  feet   (A) 

Revolutions  per  minute   (N) 

Horse  power  from  test 

GAS,   OIL  AND  ALCOHOL   ENGINES  427 

Before  the  engine  is  started,  weigh  the  brake  on  the 
scales  with  the  friction  part  on  wheels  ready  for  the  test. 
Measure  the  distance  from  the  center  of  the  wheel  to  the 
point  where  the  brake  rests  on  the  scale.  In  a  rope  brake 
the  brake  arm  is  the  radius  of  the  wheel  plus  half  the 
thickness  of  the  rope. 

When  everything  is  ready  start  the  engine  and  gradu- 
ally draw  up  the  brake.  A  gasoline  engine  is  running 
at  full  load  when  it  misses  only  one  explosion  out  of 
about  every  eight.  Tighten  the  brake  until  this  point  is 
reached,  then  run  the  weight  out  on  the  scale  beam  until 
the  point  is  reached  where  it  balances.  Now  let  one  man 
keep  the  scales  balanced  by  tightening  and  loosening  the 
brake ;  at  the  same  time  let  the  other  man  take  the  speed 
of  the  engine  for  one  minute.  This  is  all  the  data  needed 
to  determine  the  brake  horse  powxr.  It  is  well,  however, 
to  keep  the  brake  on  with  engine  running  at  full  load  for 
at  least  15  minutes  to  determine  whether  the  engine  will 
carry  the  load. 

569.  Care  of  gasoline  engines. — In  the  care  of  the  en- 
gine there  are  three  points  of  equal  importance,  namely : 
cleanliness,  water,  and  oil.  To  secure  the  first  a  well- 
lighted  room  is  required,  one  in  which  the  engine  alone 
is  placed.  Damp,  dark  cellars  should  be  avoided.  As  to 
water  and  oil,  the  consideration  given  depends  entirely 
upon  the  man  in  charge.  If  the  engine  room  is  light,  the 
floor  clean,  waste  in  a  can,  tools  in  a  case,  and  engine 
bright  and  clean,  it  is  a  certainty  that  its  bearings  do 
not  cut  for  the  want  of  oil,  nor  its  water  jacket  run  dry 
or  freeze  up. 

A  person  who  does  not  understand  the  engine  should 
refrain  from  tampering  with  it  as  long  as  it  runs  well. 
During  this  time  he  should  be  observing  and  notice  the 
workings  of  all  parts  so  that  in  case  the  engine  is  not 
working  satisfactorily  he  can  readjust  it 


428  FARM    MOTORS 

570.  Lubrication. — Lubrication  of  the  gas  engine  cylin- 
der is  very  important.  A  special  oil  must  be  used 
to  stand  the  high  temperature  met  with  in  gas-engine 
practice.  Any  oil  containing  animal  fat  will  not  work  at 
all  because  when  subjected  to  high  temperature  it  will 
decompose  and  be  reduced  to  a  charred  mass.  First-class 
steam  engine  cylinder  oil  will  not  give  good  results  be- 
cause it  contains  certain  elements  which  will  carburet 
like  gasoline  under  high  pressure  and  high  temperature. 
Good  engine  oil  is  satisfactory  for  other  parts. 

571.  Gasoline  engine  troubles. — The  gasoline  engine  is 
often  condemned  as  being  unreliable.  This  may  be  ex- 
plained from  the  fact  that  unless  conditions  are  just  right 
the  gasoline  engine  will  stop  or  refuse  to  work  at  all. 
This  is  different  in  other  forms  of  motors  because  very 
often  the  thing  which  interferes  with  its  operation  comes 
on  gradually  and  may  not  be  noticed  by  the  man  in 
charge.  It  has  been  stated  that  "there  are  four  things 
essential  to  the  operation  of  a  gasoline  engine,"  namely : 
compression,  ignition,  carburetion  or  proper  mixture,  and 
proper  valve  action.  If  these  four  conditions  are  ob- 
tained, the  engine  will  work  or  run.  If  there  is  failure 
to  obtain  any  one  of  them,  the  engine  will  refuse  to  run. 
Often  an  engine  will  stop,  and  it  is  difficult  to  tell  which 
one  of  the  various  conditions  is  wrong.  It  is  necessary 
to  trace  the  trouble  and  correct  it. 

572.  Compression. — It  is  easy  to  detect  whether  or  not 
there  is  compression  by  turning  the  engine  over;  if  a 
charge  of  air  is  caught  and  compressed,  this  is  an  easy 
matter  to  determine.  Failure  to  get  compression  may  be 
due  to  a  valve  refusing  to  seat  or  to  a  leak  past  the  valve. 
It  may  also  be  due  to  a  leak  past  the  piston,  to  broken 
piston  rings,  poorly  seated  rings,  or  rings  gummed  with 
oil.     If  valves  do  not  seat  correctly,  it  may  be  due  to 


GAS,  OIL  AND  ALCOHOL  ENGINES  429 

some  gum  or  scale  under  one  side  of  the  valve.  If  they 
leak,  it  may  be  due  to  the  fact  that  the  valve  seat  has 
become  worn  owing  to  excessive  heat,  in  which  case  they 
must  be  reground.  If  there  are  broken  rings,  they  must 
be  replaced  with  new.  If  poorly  seated,  new  rings  must 
be  fitted  to  the  cylinder.  If  they  are  gummed  up  so  they 
will  not  spring  out  against  the  cylinder  walls,  they  may 
be  oiled  and  loosened  with  kerosene. 

573.  Ignition. — The  majority  of  the  gasoline  engine 
troubles  may  be  laid  to  the  ignitor.  As  stated  before,  it 
is  often  very  difficult  to  pick  out  the  trouble  with  the 
ignitor  in  the  case  of  a  battery  which  has  been  exhausted. 

If  for  any  reason  the  operator  thinks  the  spark  fails 
to  pass  on  the  inside  of  the  cylinder,  the  wire  on  the  in- 
sulated terminal  should  be  disconnected  and  snapped  on 
some  bright  part  of  the  engine.  If  there  is  a  spark,  it 
proves  that  as  far  as  the  battery  is  concerned  everything 
is  satisfactory.  If  there  is  none,  the  wire  should  be  thor- 
oughly gone  over,  the  trouble  located,  and  a  spark  ob- 
tained. Perhaps  it  will  be  found  that  a  binding  screw  is 
loose,  or  the  circuit  has  been  broken  at  some  other  point. 
If  the  operator  gets  a  spark  in  the  above  manner,  and 
then  snaps  the  wire  across  the  insulated  binding  post, 
obtaining  a  spark,  there  is  a  connection  between  the 
points  within  the  engine,  and  the  ignitor  must  be  re- 
moved and  cleaned.  If  by  making  this  test  there  is  no 
spark,  it  indicates  that  there  is  no  circuit  between  the 
ignitor  points,  and  the  operator  should  now  hold  the 
points  together  within  the  engine,  by  means  of  the  ignitor 
dog,  and  snap  the  wire  across  the  insulated  terminal. 
This  time  a  spark  should  be  obtained,  but  if  not,  it  indi- 
cates that  there  is  insulation  between  the  points,  which 
must  be  cleaned  after  the  ignitor  is  removed.  Water  and 
carbon  will  make  a  circuit  between  the  points,  while  oil 


430  FARM    MOTORS 

and  rust  will  prevent  contact.  Any  of  the  above  sub- 
stances between  the  ignitor  points  will  prevent  a  spark. 
The  point  of  ignition  varies  with  the  speed  of  the  engine. 
On  a  slow-speed  engine,  one  of  about  225  revolutions  a 
minute,  ignition  should  take  place  when  the  crank  is  10° 
or  15°  before  center.  This  angle  increases  as  the  speed 
of  the  engine  increases  until  in  an  engine  running  about 
700  revolutions  a  minute  the  angle  is  from  35°  to  40°. 

To  locate  ignition  troubles  is  merely  a  matter  of  dis- 
connecting certain  parts  of  the  circuit  and  locating  the 
trouble  by  elimination. 

574.  Carburetion. — If  for  any  reason  the  carburetor  re- 
fuses to  give  a  proper  mixture,  the  engine  will  refuse  to 
run.  In  this  case  it  is  necessary  for  the  operator  to 
assure  himself  that  everything  else  is  correct,  then  clean 
out  the  cylinder  by  turning  the  engine  over  several  times 
and  beginning  as  if  he  were  starting  the  engine  for  the 
first  time.  A  too  rich  mixture  is  detected  by  black  smoke 
appearing  at  the  exhaust.  A  too  poor  mixture  is  deter- 
mined by  a  snapping  sound  from  the  exhaust,  indicating 
that  the  mixture  is  slow-burning  and  is  still  burning  when 
the  exhaust  valve  opens.  The  gas  engineer  determines 
whether  or  not  his  engine  is  running  properly  largely 
from  the  sound  of  the  exhaust. 

575.  Action  of  valves. — The  valves  now  used  on  the 
gasoline  engine  are  all  of  the  poppet  type  and  give  a  quick 
opening.  An  engine  will  not  run  if  the  valves  are 
not  properly  timed.  The  inlet  valve  is  operated  by 
suction;  however,  a  little  greater  efficiency  is  obtained  by 
having  this  valve  open  mechanically,  as  there  is  less  op- 
portunity for  the  charge  to  be  throttled  during  admission. 
The  exhaust  valve  is  always  opened  mechanically,  and 
should  open  about  45°  before  the  beginning  of  the  ex- 
haust stroke,  closing  at  the  end  of  the  stroke. 


GAS,   OIL  AND   ALCOHOL   ENGINES 


431 


576.  Exhaust. — One  of  the  greatest   annoyances  con- 
nected with  a  gasoHne  engine  is  the  noise  from  the  ex- 


i    T 


haust.     All  manufacturers  send  out  mufflers  or  exhaust 
pots.    The  latter  will  not  muffle  the  exhaust  appreciably, 


43^  FARM    MOTORS 

and  the  former  when  muffling  effectively  generally  cause 
back  pressure  and  consequently  loss  of  power.  The  most 
satisfactory  method  of  reducing  this  noise  is  to  pipe  the 
exhaust  into  a  pit,  old  well,  or  smoke  stack.  The  top  of 
the  pit  or  well  should  be  closed,  with  the  exception  of 
three  or  four  openings  the  size  of  the  exhaust  pipe. 

577.  Setting. — To  insure  a  smooth-running  gasoline 
engine,  the  setting  is  a  very  important  point.  Fastening 
to  the  ground  by  means  of  stakes  and  skids  or  to  a  floor 
by  means  of  lag  screws  are  makeshift  methods.  A  ma- 
sonry foundation  with  well-set  anchor  bolts  is  by  all 
means  advisable.  Well-laid  concrete  is  the  best  and  gen- 
erally the  cheapest.  The  foundation  at  the  bottom  should 
be  about  twice  the  length  of  the  base  of  the  engine  and 
a  little  more  than  twice  the  width.  For  an  engine  of  5 
to  12  horse  power  it  should  be  from  3  to  4  feet  deep,  and 
for  larger  sized  engines  from  5  to  6.  The  sides  should 
be  battered  until  they  are  about  8  inches  wider  at  the 
top  than  the  engine.  The  jar  is  to  a  certain  extent  broken 
by  having  heavy  planking  between  the  masonry  and  the 
engine.  To  set  and  hold  the  anchor  bolts  in  position,  a 
templet  should  be  made  which  contains  holes  correspond- 
ing exactly  to  those  in  the  engine  bed.  The  templet 
should  be  made  strong  and  firm.  The  bolts  need  a  heavy 
washer  or  plate  at  the  lower  end  and  should  be  passed 
up  through  a  pipe  which  has  an  inside  diameter  of  not 
less  than  i  inch.  This  gives  a  chance  for  variation  in 
setting. 

578.  Advantages  of  the  gasoline  engine  as  a  farm 
motor. — The  gasoline  engine  has  many  advantages  over 
the  steam  engine.  In  the  first  place,  the  farmer  as  a  rule 
uses  power  for  short  intervals.  The  gasoline  engine  is 
always  ready  to  start,  and  when  the  run  is  over  there  is 
no  fuel  in  the  fire  box  to  be  wasted.    It  does  not  reauire 


GAS,   OIL  AND  ALCOHOL   ENGINES  433 

an  hour's  time  to  get  up  steam.  Not  only  is  there  a  waste 
of  fire  in  the  fire  box,  but  the  steam  boiler  when  under 
steam  contains  a  large  amount  of  energy,  and  on  cooling 
down  this  must  all  be  wasted. 

In  regard  to  the  matter  of  safety  the  gasoline  engine 
has  the  advantage  again.  There  is  practically  no  danger 
from  explosion  with  it,  for,  as  was  stated,  there  is  not  a 
large  amount  of  energy  stored  up  which  may  be  suddenly 
released  to  cause  an  explosion.  Usually  the  supply  tank 
is  placed  outside  the  building,  buried  in  the  ground,  so  the 
danger  from  fire  is  reduced  to  a  minimum.  Steam  boilers 
must  have  an  attendant,  lest  the  water  get  too  low  and 
burn  the  crown  sheet,  or  become  too  high  so  water  is  car- 
ried over  into  the  cylinder  and  knock  the  cylinder  head 
out.  The  fire  has  to  be  fed  continually  and  the  grates 
cleaned,  so  that  an  attendant  is  needed  practically  all  the 
time.  Such  close  attention  is  not  needed  with  gasoline 
engines. 

The  gasoline  engine  is  as  portable  as  the  steam  engine. 
As  to  furnishing  its  own  traction,  there  are  several  gaso- 
line traction  engines  on  the  market,  and  there  is  no  rea- 
son why  with  the  addition  of  clutches  and  variable-speed 
devices  the  gasoline  engine  cannot  be  made  as  reliable  an 
engine  as  the  steam  traction  engine.  In  proof  of  the 
fact  that  it  may  be  made  to  furnish  its  own  tractive  power 
it  is  only  necessary  to  refer  to  the  automobile,  which  is 
made  to  work  under  great  variance  of  speed. 

In  regard  to  the  cost  of  power  from  gasoline  and  coal, 
each  has  advantages  under  certain  conditions.  The  aver- 
age consumption  of  gasoline  per  horse  power  per  hour 
should  be  about  i/6  or  1/7  gallon,  with  a  minimum  of 
l/io  gallon.  The  coal  consumed  per  brake  horse  power 
per  hour  is  about  8  pounds,  with  a  minimum  near  4 
pounds  as  burned  under  boilers  to  furnish  steam  for  farm 


434  FARM    MOTORS 

engines.  It  is  possible  to  figure  just  what  the  running 
expense  will  be  if  the  cost  of  the  two  different  kinds  of 
fuel  be  at  hand.  Under  ordinary  conditions  and  for  very 
small  units  the  gasoline  engine  will  without  question  be 
the  cheapest.  In  dairy  work,  steam  direct  from  the  boiler 
or  from  the  exhaust  is  used  to  heat  water  for  washing 
purposes,  and  this  is  a  great  advantage  for  the  steam 
plant.  However,  the  jacket  water  heated  with  the  ex- 
haust of  a  gasoline  engine  might  be  used  in  the  same 
way. 

The  steam  engine  as  built  for  farm  use  is  capable,  at 
the  expense  of  economy,  of  carrying  a  very  heavy  over- 
load. This  is  extremely  advantageous  in  traction  engines 
in  case  of  emergencies.  A  25-horse  steam  traction  engine 
is  often  able  to  develop  60  brake  horse  power.  Gasoline 
engines  are  rated  very  nearly  their  maximum  power,  and 
are  not  able  to  carry  a  large  overload. 

The  troubles  with  steam  engines  usually  come  on  grad- 
ually, and  the  attendant  is  able  to  observe  what  is  wrong 
before  the  engine  is  stopped.  With  the  gasoline  engine, 
if  anything  goes  wrong  the  engine  stops  at  once.  All  con- 
ditions must  be  right  in  the  gasoline  engine  or  it  will 
not  run. 

579.  The  future  of  the  gasoline  engine. — Gasoline  en- 
gines will  no  doubt  be  used  more  and  more  as  time  goes 
on,  as  they  are  especially  adapted  to  the  farmer's  needs. 
The  gasoline  engine  is  a  power  plant  within  itself.  It 
can  be  manufactured  in  almost  any  sized  unit,  and  a  suit- 
able size  can  be  produced  for  all  manner  of  farm  work 
from  the  light  work  of  running  grain  separators  to  a 
motor  large  enough  to  run  a  threshing  separator.  If 
gasoline  as  a  fuel  becomes  too  expensive,  there  is  a  possi- 
bility of  a  substitution  of  other  liquid  fuels  in  this  type  of 
engine. 


GAS,   OIL  AND  ALCOHOL   ENGINES  435 

Engines  may  be  designed  to  use  a  heavier  kerosene  oil, 
and  also  alcohol.  By  the  addition  of  a  gas  producer, 
power  may  be  obtained  from  coal  by  the  use  of  a  gas 
engine.  The  internal-combustion  engine  is  the  most  ef- 
ficient of  all  engines ;  that  is,  a  larger  per  cent  of  the 
heat  is  converted  into  mechanical  energy  than  by  any 
other  form  of  prime  mover.  The  efficiency  of  a  steam 
plant  is  seldom  more  than  12  per  cent ;  that  of  a  gasoline 
engine  is  not  far  from  20  per  cent.  Alcohol  v^orks  about 
as  v^ell  in  the  gasoline  engine  as  gasoline.  The  only 
difficulty  to  be  had  is  in  starting,  as  alcohol  does  not 
carburet  as  easily  as  gasoline.  As  a  rough  estimate,  four 
gallons  of  alcohol  are  equal  to  three  gallons  of  gasoline. 

Alcohol  is  now  manufactured  in  Germany  at  about  18 
cents  a  gallon.  It  is  claimed  that  alcohol  can  be  manu- 
factured as  a  by-product  of  sugar  factories  for  as  low 
as  10  cents  a  gallon.  Thus  we  can  feel  sure  that  if  gaso- 
line ever  becomes  so  scarce  and  expensive  as  to  prevent 
its  use  upon  the  farm,  we  may  substitute  for  it  a  fuel 
which  may  be  produced  upon  the  farm  itself. 

There  is  a  marked  advantage  in  the  use  of  alcohol  in 
that  higher  compression  pressure  may  be  used  without 
pre-ignition.  This  tends  to  increase  the  efficiency  of  the 
engine.  It  is  thought  that  the  time  will  come  when  every 
farm  will  be  provided  with  a  power  plant  in  which  an 
engine  of  the  internal-combustion  type  will  be  installed. 


CHAPTER  XXI 

TRACTION  ENGINES 

580.  Traction  engines. — The  steam  boiler  and  the 
steam  engine  have  been  considered  separately.  If  the 
two  should  now  be  combined  by  means  of  a  steam  pipe 
and  placed  on  skids  or  trucks  they  would  be  termed  a 
portable  steam  engine.  A  gasoline  engine  placed  on  skids 
or  trucks  is  known  as  a  portable  gasoline  engine.  Such 
engines  are  not  self-propelling,  but  have  to  be  moved  by 
means  of  animals  or  some  mechanical  device.  The  trac- 
tion steam  engine  is  the  boiler,  engine,  and  propelling 
device  all  in  one.  The  traction  gasoline  engine  is  the  en- 
gine and  propelling  device  combined.  In  other  words, 
the  traction  engine  develops  the  power  by  which  it  moves 
itself  over  roads,  fields,  etc.  The  action  of  the  traction 
engine  is  to  convert  energy  into  horizontal  motion  which 
has  no  direct  path ;  that  is,  the  heat  from  the  fuel  is  trans- 
ferred from  the  boiler  to  the  water,  then  from  the  water 
to  the  steam  pipe,  and  from  the  steam  pipe  to  the  engine, 
where  it  is  changed  from  heat  energy  to  mechanical 
energy.  The  mechanical  energy  is  then  transferred  from 
the  engine  to  the  clutch,  thence  to  the  drive  wheels,  which 
propel  the  combined  unit  over  its  path.  The  gasoline 
traction  engine  is  similar  to  the  steam  engine  in  part  only 
and  is  considered  by  itself. 

ENGINE  MOUNTING 

In  nearly  all  types  of  traction  engines  the  engine  is 
mounted  upon  the  boiler,  and  the  boiler  is  mounted  upon 
the   truck.     There  are  now  being  made  some   engines 


TRACTION    ENGINES  437 

which  are  of  the  locomotive  type,  having  the  engine 
mounted  beneath  the  boiler.  These  are  known  as  under- 
mounted  engines. 

581.  Boiler  mounting. — There  are  four  general  methods 
of  mounting  the  boiler.  The  most  common  method  is 
to  attach  the  drive  wheels  to  brackets  at  the  side  of  the 
boiler  and  is  known  as  side  mounting.  Another  common 
method  is  to  mount  the  drive  wheels  on  an  axle  at  the 


FIG.  316 — SIDE-MOUNTED  PORTABLE  ENGINE 

rear  end  of  the  boiler  and  is  known  as  rear  mounting. 
As  a  rule,  the  return  tubular  boilers  are  mounted  on  an 
axle  which  passes  beneath  the  boiler.  This  style  of 
mounting  is  given  no  special  name,  but  might  be  called 
under-mounted  boilers.  There  is  now  on  the  market  a 
type  of  mounting  which  might  be  known  as  frame  mount- 
ing ;  that  is,  there  is  a  frame  to  which  the  drive  wheels  are 
attached,  and  it  also  supports  the  boiler. 

582.  Side  mounting. — Fig.  316  shows  the  method  of 
side  mounting  a  portable  engine.  This  is  similar  to  a 
great   many    side-mounted   traction    engines.      Fig.    317 


438 


FARM    MOTORS 


shows  a  similar  side-mounted  traction  engine.     This  is 
done  by  means  of  an  axle  for  the  drive  wheel,  which  is 


FIG.  317— SIDE- MOUNTED  TRACTION  ENGINE 

substantially  fixed  to  a  casting.  This  casting,  which  is 
known  as  the  bracket,  is  then  riveted  to  the  side  of  the 
fire  box.  Fig.  318  shows  this  principle  very  well  except- 
ing that  the  bracket  is 
strengthened  by  means  of 
a  couple  of  rods  which 
pass  under  the  fire  box 
and  are  correspondingly 
attached  to  the  bracket  on 
the  other  side.  This  is  a 
very  simple  method,  but 
has  some  disadvantages. 
The  side  bracket  is  at- 
tached only  to  the  water 
leg  of  the  boiler,  while  the 
total  weight  of  the  engine 

FIG.  318 — BRACKET  FOR  SIDE-  J        t,    '1  •  i.  u 

MOUNTED  ENGINE  ^"^     ^oi^er     IS     thrown 


TRACTION    ENGINES 


439 


upon  it.  It  is  obvious  that  this  puts  undue  strain  upon 
the  boiler  shell  at  a  point  where  it  is  the  weakest.  The 
weight  of  the  boiler  and  the  engine  is  thrown  upon  these 
brackets  and  in  such  a  manner  that  it  has  a  tendency 
to  throw  the  inside  of  the  axle  down  and  the  outside  up. 
This  will  tend  to  throw  the  tops  of  the  drive  wheels  to- 
gether and  the  bottoms  apart.  The  weight  is  also  thrown 
upon  these  axles  so  that  that  part  of  the  hub  of  the  fly- 
wheel next  to  the  engine  will  wear  faster  than  the  middle, 
and  as  a  result  the  wheels  will  tend  to  become  wobbly 
in  action  and  wear  the  teeth  of  the  transmission  gearing 
unevenly.  A  truss  bar  similar  to  that  of  Fig.  318  re- 
moves a  great  deal  of  the  strain  from  the  water  leg,  and 


FIG.  319 


also  tends  to  hold  the  axles  in  line  with  each  other,  and 
thus  keep  the  drive  wheels  more  nearly  vertical.  An- 
other method  of  side  mounting  an  engine  is  shown  in 


440 


FARM    MOTORS 


Fig.  319.  By  inspection  it  will  be  noticed  that  this  style 
of  mounting-  is  similar  to  that  of  Fig.  317,  but  in  addition 
to  this  there  is  a  heavy  curved  axle  which  passes  from 
the  bracket  down  beneath  the  fire  box  and  up  to  the 
bracket  on  the  opposite  side.  Although  this  style  of 
mounting  is  considered  superior  to  the  one  previously 
described,  in  order  to  prevent  springing  of  the  axle  and 
the  consequent  wobbling  of  the  wheels  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  make  the  axle  too  heavy  for  practice.    Although 

the  bad  effects  of  the  strain 
on  the  boiler  are  practically 
all  removed  by  passing  the 
axle  beneath  the  fire  box, 
the  effect  of  the  wearing  of 
the  boxings  in  the  hubs  is 
still  uncared  for.  This  al- 
lows the  wheels  to  travel 
out  of  a  vertical  plane  and 
wear  the  gearing  irregu- 
larly. Fig.  320  shows  an 
end  view  of  this  style  of 
mounting,  with  the  addi- 
tion of  springs.  These 
springs  are  a  benefit  to  a 
traction  engine  in  that  they  take  the  jar  off  the  parts  as 
the  engine  travels  over  rough  roads  or  pavements. 

583.  Rear  mounting. — Rear  mounting,  as  a  rule,  is  not 
as  simply  done  as  side  mounting.  However,  it  has  some 
advantages  over  the  other.  Fig.  321  shows  one  type  of 
rear  mounting  which  has  its  merits.  The  brackets  which 
support  the  boiler  and  the  engines  are  attached  to  the 
corners  of  the  water  leg,  thus  removing  the  strain  from  a 
weak  point  to  one  which  is  stronger.  By  having  the  en- 
gine rear-mounted  the  axle  upon  which  the  drive  wheels 


FIG.   320 — SIDE- MOUNTED   ENGINE 
WITH  SPRINGS  AND  TRUSS  BAR 


TRACTION    ENGINES 


441 


travel  is  allowed  to  revolve  in  the  bearings  instead  of  the 
wheels  revolving  upon  the  axle.  By  having  the  axle  re- 
volve in  this  manner  the  wear  is  all  in  a  straight  line  and 
on  the  top  of  the  boxing,  hence  there  is  no  reason  fgr  the 
wheels  to  become  wobbly  and  cut  the  transmission  gear- 


FIG.  321 — REAR-MOUNTED  ENGINE 

ing  unevenly.  By  referring  to  Fig.  322  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  use  of  springs  becomes  impossible  on  a  rear- 
mounted  engine  as  shown  in  Fig.  321.  Assuming  that 
there  are  springs  in  this  type  of  mounting,  and  that  the 


442 


FARM    MOTORS 


Springs  are  so  adjusted  that  when  a  jar  comes  upon  the 
engine  the  teeth  will  mesh  as  shown  in  Fig,  322,  then  if 
there  were  no  jar  upon  the  engine  and  the  springs  were 
carrying  it  in  its  normal  position,  the  gears  A  and  B 
would  not  mesh,  or  else  they  would  mesh  just  enough  so 
that  the  teeth  would  catch  and  strip.  If  a  spring  could 
be  placed  so  the  combination  of  gears  A,  B,  and  C  would 


FIG.  322 
rise  and  fall  together  in  a  circle  whose  radius  is  equal  to 
the  sum  of  the  radii  of  the  wheels  C  and  D,  it  would  be 
as  effective  and  the  wheels  C  and  B  would  mesh.  Fig. 
323  shows  the  type  of  mounting  which  has  this  desired 
effect,  but  it  has  the  additional  complication  of  radius 
and  cross  links.  As  the  springs  respond  to  the  jars  of 
rough  roads,  these  links  keep  the  gear  wheels  the  proper 
distance  apart,  so  that  they  are  always  in  proper  mesh. 


TRACTION   ENGINES 


443 


5  wt/it 

i 

r 

FIG.  S2S — REAR- MOUNTED  ENGINE  WITH  RADIUS  AND  CROSS  LINKS 


FIG.   324 — UNDER-MOUNTED  ENGINE 


444 


FARM    MOTORS 


584.  Under-mounted  boilers. — Fig.  324  shows  a  type  of 
mounting  where  the  axle  is  straight  and  fastened  directly 
beneath  the  boiler.  By  inspecting  Fig.  325,  this  method 
of  mounting  will  be  more  clearly  understood.     A  is  the 


FIG.  325 


FIG.   326 — FRAME- MOUNTED  ENGINE 


TRACTION    ENGINES  445 

main  axle  upon  which  the  drive  wheels  operate.  Although 
made  of  a  square  bar,  it  is  round  at  the  bearing  5,  and 
revolves  in  it.  Although  the  brackets  for  this  type  of 
mounting  are  attached  to  the  boiler,  the  boiler  itself, 
being  round,  is  probably  strong  enough  so  that  the  ex- 
cessive strain  will  cause  very  little  trouble.  This  type  of 
mounting  very  seldom  contains  springs. 

585.  Frame  mounting. — To  remove  as  much  of  the 
strain  as  possible  from  the  boiler,  some  engines  are  now 
coming  upon  the  market  with  a  frame  which  supports 
engine,  transmission  gears,  and  boiler.  Or  else  the  frame 
supports  the  boiler  and  the  boiler  supports  the  engine. 


FIG.   327 — FRAME-MOUNTED  VERTICAL    TRACTION    ENGINE 

Fig.  326  shows  the  frame  for  this  type  of  engine  with  the 
boiler  and  transmission  gears  removed.     Fig.  327  shows 


446  FARM    MOTORS 

a  vertical  traction  engine  and  boiler  complete.  For  a  cer- 
tain class  of  work  there  is  a  call  for  a  style  of  frame 
mounting  such  as  is  seen  in  Figs.  328  and  329.  In  this 
style  of  mounting  all  the  strain  is  thrown  upon  the  frame, 
allowing  the  boilers  to  be  freely  suspended  as  shown. 


FIG,    328 — FRAME-MOUNTED  ENGINE  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE  TYPE 


FIG,  329 — ^LOCOMOTIVE  TYPE  OF  TRACTION  ENGINE   WITH  STEAM- 
OPERATED  PLOW 

586.  Engine  mounting. — Where  the  engine  is  not 
mounted  upon  the  frame  as  shown  in  Figs.  326,  327,  328, 
and  329,  it  is  mounted  upon  the  boiler.    This  is  not  con- 


TRACTION    ENGINES 


447 


sidered  the  best  method.  However,  it  is  commendable  for 
its  simplicity  and  possibly  counterbalances  the  evil  ef- 
fects of  the  extra  strain  upon  the  boiler.    Fig.  330  illus- 


A  —  B  —  c 

FIG.   330 — ILLUSTRATING  METHOD  OF   MOUNTING   ENGINE  ON  BOILER 


FIG.   331 


trates  the  method  which  most  engine  builders  utilize  in 
attaching  their  engines  to  boilers.  The  brackets  A,  B,  C 
are  riveted  directly  to  the  boiler  shell. 


448 


FARM    MOTORS 


Fig.  331  shows  the  main  bearing  A,  which  is  a  part  of 
the  frame,  also  the  bearing  B,  which  is  commonly  known 
as  the  pillow  block  bearing.  These  bearings  are  both 
riveted  to  the  boiler. 

587.  Clutch. — When  the  separator  is  being  driven  by 
the  engine  the  traction  part  must  not  move.  Conse- 
quently, there  must  be  some  method  for  throwing  the 
power  from  the  drive  wheel  which  drives  the  pulley  to 
the  transmission  gearing  that  runs  the  traction  part  of 
the  engine.  The  device  for  transferring  the  power  is  a 
clutch  generally  located  on  the  engine  shaft.  It  acts 
upon  the  belt  wheel  of  the  engine.    Fig.  332  shows  a  sim- 


FIG.  332 — CLUTCH 


pie  clutch  in  parts.  A  is  the  belt  wheel  upon  which  trav- 
els the  belt  that  drives  the  separator.  It  is  fixed  to  the 
engine  shaft  so  that  whenever  the  engine  moves  this 
wheel  moves  also.  The  clutch  blocks  and  arms  are  seen 
at  D,  and  the  pinion  is  engaged  with  the  transmission 
gearing  at  C.  This  part  of  the  mechanism  is  not  fixed  to 
the  shaft,  and  revolves  with  it  only  when  the  clutch  is 


TRACTION   ENGINES 


449 


locked.  In  other  words,  when  the  clutch  locks,  the  blocks 
all  are  forced  out  against  the  rim  of  the  belt  wheel  tight 
enough  so  they  stick  to  it  and  the  whole  mechanism  re- 
volves with  the  wheel.  The  clutch  is  a  very  important 
part  of  the  traction  engine  and  requires  very  careful  ad- 
justment and  care.  Since  the  blocks  DDD  are  continually 
wearing  off,  the  arms  EE  have  to  be  constantly  adjusted. 
They  should  be  so  carefully  adjusted  that  when  thrown 
in,  the  clutch  will  lock  and  hold  itself  in  position.  They 
should  also  be  adjusted  so  there  will  be  no  slip  between 
the    clutch    blocks    and    the    clutch     shoe.       Fig.    333 

shows  another  type  of 
clutch,  which  has  a  metal 
clutch  block  instead  of 
wood. 

588.  Transmission  gear- 
ing.— The  steam  engine  for 
traction  engine  work  gen- 
erally has  a  speed  of  200 
to  225  revolutions  a  min- 
ute. If  the  drive  wheels 
were  connected  directly  to 
the  engine  shaft  such  a 
speed  would  drive  the  out- 
fit over  the  ground  nearly 
as  fast  as  a  locomotive  travels.  This  is  something  that 
could  not  be  conceived  of  on  country  roads,  hence  the 
speed  has  to  be  reduced  to  one  which  is  permissible.  For 
this  purpose  a  chain  of  gears  such  as  is  shown  in  Fig.  334 
is  utilized.  Not  only  are  these  gears  used  to  reduce  the 
speed  of  rotation  from  that  of  the  drive  wheel  to  that  of 
the  engine,  but  since  the  engine  is  generally  located  some 
distance  from  the  traction  wheel  shaft,  these  gears  con- 
duct the  power  from  the  engine  shaft  to  the  shaft  of  the 


FIf''-   333 — CLUTCH   WITH   METAL 
BLOCKS 


450  FARM    MOTORS 

traction  wheel.  The  intermediate  gears  are  generally- 
attached  to  the  boiler  by  means  of  brackets  as  shown 
in  Fig.  322.  If  the  engine  were  always  to  travel 
straight  ahead  or  straight  backward  the  matter  of  trans- 
mission gearing  would  be  very  simple,  but  since  it  has 
to  turn  and  often  on  a  very  small  circle  one  wheel  is 
compelled  to  travel  faster  than  the  other;  consequently 
they  cannot  be  both  attached  rigidly  to  the  same  shaft. 


FIG.    334 — GEARS  CONNECTING  ENGINE   WITH  TRACTION    WHEELS 

If  one  wheel  were  attached  to  the  shaft  and  the  other 
were  allowed  to  go  free  then  one  wheel  would  do  all 
of  the  traction  work.  This  would  not  do,  since  the  engine 
would  have  only  half  of  the  tractive  pov/er  and  for  road 
work  it  is  necessary  that  every  pound  possible  of  trac- 
tive pull  be  developed.  To  arrange  the  drive  wheels  of 
a  traction  engine  so  that  both  will  pull  when  the  engine 
is  traveling  in  a  straight  line  and  also  so  they  will  travel 


TRACTION    ENGINES 


451 


in  a  curve  without  slipping,  a  compensating  gear  is  in- 
serted in  the  chain  of  transmission. 

589.  Compensating  gears. — Fig.  335  shows  a  simple, 
very  effective  compensating  gear.  The  large  pinion  A 
carries  the  small  pinions  CCC.  The  shaft  F  is  connected 
to  the  flywheel  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  engine  by 
means  of  a  small  pinion.  The  pinion  G  is  connected  to  the 
other  main  gear.  The  power  is  transmitted  from  the  en- 
gine shaft  to  the  pinion  A.  As  pinion  A  revolves  in  the  di- 
rection of  the  arrow,  pinions  CCC  will  be  driven,  and  they 

in  turn  will  propel  the  drive 
wheels.  But  if  the  drive 
wheel  attached  to  pinion  G 
happens  to  travel  faster  than 
that  attached  to  shaft  F  the 
pinion  C  will  revolve  and 
still  the  pinion  A  will  propel 
the  gearing.  Often  there  are 
some  very  severe  jerks  on 
the  transmission  gearing  of 
an  engine  and  some  com- 
panies are  now  inserting  in 
their  compensating  gears  a 
set  of  springs  which  take  this  jar  off  the  gearing. 

590.  Traction. — Any  traction  engine  has  power  enough 
to  propel  itself  over  the  road  and  through  the  fields  pro- 
vided the  drive  wheels  do  not  slip.  Consequently  the 
matter  of  the  wheels  adhering  to  the  ground  is  an  im- 
portant part.  Where  the  road  surface  is  firm  there  is  no 
difficulty ;  but  in  a  soft  field  great  trouble  is  experienced 
due  to  the  fact  that  the  lugs  of  the  drive  wheels  tear  up 
the  earth  and  allow  the  drive  wheels  to  move  without 
moving  the  engine.  It  is  a  common  belief  that  the  drive 
wheel  which  has  the  sharpest  lug  is  the  one  which  will 


FIG.   335 — COMPENSATING  GEARS 


45^ 


Farm  motors 


adhere  to  the  ground  th'e  best.  In  nearly  all  cases  this 
is  not  true,  since  the  lug  which  is  sharp  is  very  apt  to  cut 
through  the  earth,  while  one  which  is  dull  or  round  and 
does  not  have  such  penetrating  effect  will  pack  the  earth 
down  and  thus  make  more  resistance  for  itself  while 
passing  through  the  earth.  Nearly  every  engine  builder 
has  a  style  of  lug  of  his  own.  Fig.  338  shows  a  new 
style  of  traction  wheel  which  seems  to  be  giving  very 
good  results.  The  more  weight  that  can  be  put  on  to 
the  drive  wheels  of  an  engine  the  better  it  will  adhere 
to  the  ground,  providing  the  surface  is  firm  enough  to 
support  the  load.     This  makes  the  matter  of  location  of 

the  main  axles  upon  the 
boiler  an  important  factor. 
When  the  boiler  is  rear- 
mounted  it  is  obvious  that 
more  of  the  weight  is 
thrown  upon  the  front 
wheels,  which  act  as  a 
guide,  than  when  the 
boiler  is  side-mounted. 
Hence  one  would  be  led  to 
believe  that  the  side-mounted  traction  engine  will  have 
better  tractive  power  than  the  rear-mounted.  It  is  also  in- 
dicative of  better  tractive  power  when  the  pivot  of  the 
front  axle  is  as  far  ahead  as  possible.  For  this  reason 
some  builders  are  now  attaching  a  frame  to  the  boiler 
and  crowding  the  front  trucks  ahead.  Fig.  336  is  an  illus- 
tration of  this  type  of  mounting. 

591.  Width  of  tires. — Where  traction  engines  such  as 
are  used  for  harvesting  and  threshing  grain  simultane- 
ously are  used  for  plow  work  or  in  the  field  an  excep- 
tionally wide  tire  is  required.  If  an  engine  is  to  be  used 
for  this  work  exclusively  the  wheels  are  made  with  the 


FIG.  336 


TRACTION    ENGINES  453 

proper  width  of  tires  at  the  factory.  But  where  an  en- 
gine is  to  be  used  for  job  threshing  a  part  of  the  time 
and  for  plowing  a  part  of  the  time  the  wheels  should  be 
made  so  an  extra  width  of  tire  can  be  attached  to  support 
the  engine  for  plowing. 

592.  Road  rollers. — For  road  rolling  purposes  traction 
engines  as  a  rule,  especially  the  gearing  and  bearings,  are 
made  much  heavier.  The  tires  are  wider,  and  the  front 
truck  instead  of  being  made  of  two  wheels  is  made  into 
one  broad  wheel. 

HANDLING  A  TRACTION  ENGINE 

593.  Moving  an  engine. — When  moving  an  engine  it  is 
best  to  carry  more  water  than  when  doing  stationary 
work.  This  is  especially  true  in  hilly  fields  or  hilly 
roads.  The  gauge  glass  and  water  cocks  should  be  care- 
fully watched.  The  steam  pressure  should  be  maintained 
near  the  blow-off  point.  Upon  approaching  a  hill  judg- 
ment should  be  exercised  in  regard  to  the  fire  and  amount 
of  water  and  pressure.  As  much  water  should  be  car- 
ried as  is  permissible  without  priming.  If  possible  there 
should  be  sufficient  fire  when  starting  up  a  hill  to  carry 
the  engine  to  the  top.  Judgment  should  also  be  exercised 
in  regard  to  the  speed.  Taking  an  engine  up  a  hill  too 
fast  is  apt  to  cause  priming.  Also  there  is  danger  of 
reducing  the  steam  pressure  so  that  a  stop  will  have  to 
be  made  to  raise  it.  When  the  summit  of  the  hill  has 
been  reached,  the  fire  can  be  started  up,  more  water  put 
in  the  boiler,  and  the  engine  allowed  to  travel  faster. 
As  much  and  probably  more  care  should  be  exercised 
in  descending  a  hill  than  in  ascending.  If  possible  the 
engine  should  be  taken  from  the  top  of  the  hill  to  the 
foot  without  a  stop.  If  this  is  not  possible  turn  the  en- 
gine around  so  that  it  sits  as  near  level  as  possible  while 


454  FARM    MOTORS 

the  stop  is  being  made.  Every  engineer  knows  the  dan- 
ger of  having  the  front  end  of  a  fire  box  boiler  the  lowest. 
If  the  engine  is  inclined  to  run  too  fast  in  going  down 
a  hill  the  reverse  should  be  thrown.  If  then  it  still  travels 
too  fast,  while  the  engine  is  still  in  the  reverse,  open  the 
throttle  and  let  in  a  little  steam. 

594.  Guiding  an  engine. — Traction  engines  are  guided 
by  means  of  the  hand  wheel,  which  operates  through  a 
worm  gear.  This  in  turn  acts  upon  chains  which  are 
attached  to  the  ends  of  the  front  axle.  Turning  the  hand 
wheel  to  the  right  will  turn  the  engine  in  that  direction, 
while  in  turning  the  hand  wheel  to  the  left  the  engine  will 
turn  to  the  left.  Do  not  turn  the  steering  wheels  too 
often  or  too  far.  Watch  the  front  axle  and  act  accord- 
ingly. It  is  much  easier  to  steer  an  engine  when  moving 
than  when  standing.  If  possible  always  move  the  engine 
a  trifle  when  steering.  The  steering  chains  should  be 
moderately  tight;  if  they  are  too  tight  they  will  cause 
undue  friction,  while  if  they  are  too  loose  the  engine 
cannot  be  guided  steadily. 

595.  Mud  holes. — The  best  way  to  get  out  of  a  mud 
hole  is  not  to  get  into  it.  An  engineer  should  go  out  of 
his  way  a  considerable  distance  rather  than  to  take  his 
engine  into  a  mud  hole.  When  an  engine  is  once  in  a 
mud  hole  and  the  drive  wheels  commence  to  slip  without 
propelling,  the  engine  should  be  shut  down  at  once. 
When  the  drive  wheels  are  run  in  the  mud  without 
moving  the  engine  they  soon  dig  up  a  hole  out  of  which 
it  is  very  hard  to  raise  the  engine.  When  drive  wheels 
commence  to  slip,  straw,  boards,  rails,  posts,  or  anything 
at  hand  should  be  put  under  them  so  they  may  get  a 
grip.  In  getting  out  of  a  mud  hole  do  not  start  the  en- 
gine quickly,  but  very  slowly.  If  the  wheels  will  stick  at 
all  they  will  gradually  move  the  engine  by  starting  it 


TRACTION    ENGINES  455 

slowly,  while  if  starting  it  quickly  the  grip  of  the  wheels 
gives  away  before  momentum  can  be  put  into  the  engine. 
If  stuck  in  a  mud  hole  always  uncouple  the  separator  or 
whatever  load  the  engine  is  hauling,  move  the  engine 
out,  then  by  means  of  a  rope  or  chain  pull  the  separator 
across.  If  the  engine  is  stuck  in  a  soft  place  like  a  plowed 
field  often  the  hitching  of  a  team  in  front  will  take 
it  out. 

596.  Bridges. — Before  crossing  a  bridge  or  culvert  the 
engineer  should  make  inspection  to  see  if  it  will  carry  the 
weight  of  his  engine  and  the  separator.  If  there  be  any 
doubt  and  it  is  impossible  to  move  the  engine  around  the 
bridge  heavy  planks  should  be  placed  across  it  to  dis- 
tribute the  load.  Always  move  slowly  while  crossing  a 
bridge.  If  tKe  engine  has  once  broken  through  it  can 
sometimes  be  removed  by  winding  a  rope  around  the 
belt  wheel  several  times,  then  setting  the  friction  clutch 
and  hitching  a  team  upon  the  rope.  As  the  rope  gradu- 
ally unwinds,  it  will  move  the  engine  by  means  of  the 
transmission  gearing. 

597.  Gutters. — In  road  work  often  one  drive  wheel  of 
an  engine  will  strike  a  soft  place  in  the  gutter.  Owing 
to  the  principle  of  the  compensating  gear  this  wheel  will 
then  slip  in  the  mud  and  revolve  while  the  other  wheel 
will  remain  stationary  and  the  engine  not  move.  In  a 
case  like  this  the  compensating  gear  should  be  locked  and 
both  wheels  be  made  to  revolve  together.  The  wheel 
which  is  on  the  solid  ground  will  move  the  engine  out 
of  the  hole.  To  lock  the  compensating  gear  there 
is  generally  some  scheme,  as  in  Fig.  335,  whereby  a  pin 
can  be  inserted  in  the  pinion  A  and  lock  the  pinion  D 
by  means  of  the  projection  H. 

598.  Reversing  the  engine  on  the  road. — When  it  is  de- 
sired to  reverse  a  traction  engine  moving  on  the  road 


456  FARM    MOTORS 

the  throttle  valve  should  be  closed,  the  engine  reversed, 
then  the  throttle  opened.  Traction  engines  are  usually 
made  strong  enough  so  they  will  stand  the  strain  of 
being  reversed  without  closing  the  throttle.  This,  how- 
ever, is  hard  on  the  bearings,  and  the  engineer  should 
always  close  the  throttle  before  reversing  the  engine, 
especially  if  the  engine  is  running  at  full  speed. 

599.  Setting  an  engine. — A  new  engineer  will  expe- 
rience some  difficulty  in  setting  an  engine  so  it  is  prop- 
erly lined  with  the  separator.  On  a  still  day  the  belt 
wheel  of  the  engine  should  be  in  line  with  the  separator. 
This  is  also  true  when  the  wind  is  blowing  in  line  with 
the  engine  and  the  separator.  But  if  the  wind  is  at  an 
angle  allowance  will  have  to  be  made  for  the  amount 
which  it  will  carry  the  belt  to  one  side.  Often  the  en- 
gine will  have  to  be  set  a  few  feet  out  of  line  with  the 
separator  and  toward  the  wind.  If  the  engine  has  been 
set  when  there  is  no  wind  and  enough  wind  comes  up  to 
throw  the  belt  over,  it  is  not  necessary  to  stop  the  en- 
gine and  move,  but  a  jack  screw  can  be  set  against  the 
end  of  the  front  axle  and  the  engine  worked  over  toward 
the  wind.  Also  the  front  end  of  the  separator  should 
be  crowded  in  a  similar  manner  until  the  belt  runs  in 
the  proper  position  on  the  pulley.  The  friction  clutch 
should  always  be  used  in  backing  the  engine  into  the  belt. 

600.  Gasoline  traction  engines.  —  Since  the  gasoline 
traction  engine  requires  no  boiler,  the  engine  with  its 
necessary  accessories,  such  as  water  tanks,  gasoline  tanks 
and  battery  boxes,  is  mounted  upon  a  frame.  Conse- 
quently the  mounting  of  a  gasoline  engine  is  more  simple 
than  that  of  a  steam  engine.  However,  it  has  a  disad- 
vantage which  the  steam  engine  does  not  have ;  that  is, 
the  engine  itself  cannot  have  its  direction  of  rotation 
reversed  without  a  great  deal  of  trouble,  consequently 


TRACTION   ENGINES 


457 


there  has  to  be  connected  into  the  transmission  gear  a 
reversing  gear.  The  simplest  of  the  reversing  gears  for 
gasoh'ne  engines  now  on  the  market  is  a  system  of  fric- 
tion pulleys,  such  that  when  the  engine  is  in  one  posi- 
tion on  the  frame  the  traction  wheels  will  move  for- 
ward. When  it  is  in  another  position  another  set  of 
wheels  is  connected  in  and  the  traction  wheels  will  move 
backward.  It  will  be  noticed  from  this  that  the  engine, 
which  generally  weighs  2,000  or  3,000  pounds,  has  to  be 
slid  backward  or  forward  on  the  mounting  frame. 
Fig.  337  shows  a  type  of  engine  which  reverses  as  above 


WG.    337-'<'ASOLINE    TRACTION   ENGINE   WITH    FRICTION   GEARING 


described.  This  engine  is  operated  by  means  of  a  set 
of  friction  wheels,  instead  of  a  set  of  gearing  as  steam 
traction  engines  are  run.  Fig.  338  illustrates  an  engine 
which  utilizes  f)inions  for  its  transmission  gearing  similar 
to  a  steam  traction  engine. 
Rating. — Gasoline  traction  engines  are  all  rated  upon 


458 


FARM    MOTORS 


the  horse  power  they  will  develop  at  the  brake.  Conse- 
quently when  one  speaks  of  a  15  H.P.  gasoline  engine  he 
refers  to  an  engine  which  will  develop  only  about  the 
same  horse  power  which  a  commercially  rated  7  H.P. 
steam  engine  will  develop.  For  this  reason  when  com- 
paring the  powers  of  the  two  engines  it  is  always  well  at 
least  to  double  the  size  of  the  gasoline  engine  to  do  the 
work  which  a  commercially  rated  steam  traction  engine 
has  been  doing. 


FIG.   338 — TRACTION   ENGINE  WHICH  REVERSES  IN  THE  CLUTCH 


Regulation  of  speed, — A  gasoline  traction  engine  oper- 
ated by  means  of  friction  gearing,  as  illustrated  in 
Fig.  337,  can  have  any  speed  required  of  it  at  the  expense 
of  slippage  between  the  gears.  But  a  positively  driven 
traction  engine  must  have  other  methods  of  changing 
the  speed.    These  methods  generally  amount  to  changing 


TRACTION   ENGINES  459 

the  point  of  ignition  in  the  engine  in  order  to  reduce  the 
power  at  low  speed,  or  else  shifting  the  power  from  one 
set  of  gears  to  another.  Generally  in  an  engine  where  the 
power  is  shifted  there  are  only  two  speeds,  a  high  and  a 
low. 

On  the  road. — About  the  same  caution  should  be  exer- 
cised in  handling  a  gasoline  traction  engine  through  soft 
and  muddy  places  and  over  bridges  as  in  handling  a  steam 
engine.  But  there  is  practically  no  caution  to  be  taken 
in  climbing  hills  other  than  that  taken  on  level  ground. 
Upon  descending  a  hill  a  strong  and  effective  brake 
should  always  be  at  the  control  of  the  operator. 

Traction. — As  a  rule  gasoline  traction  engines  are  much 
lighter  than  steam  traction  engines.  Consequently  their 
tractive  power  is  correspondingly  less.  And  for  heavy 
traction  work  the  size  of  the  engine  must  be  increased 
in  order  to  add  to  the  tractive  power. 


CHAPTER  XXII 


ELECTRICAL  MACHINERY 

601.  Natural  magnets. — The  name  magnet  was  given 
by  the  ancients  to  a  brown-colored  stone  which  had  the 
property  of  attracting  certain  metals.  Later  the  Chinese 
found  that  when  free  to  move  this  stone  always  pointed 
in  one  direction,  and  they  named  it  loadstone  (meaning 
to  lead).  The  commercial  name  for  it  is  magnetite 
(FegO^).  This  mineral  is  found  in  such  quantities  in  sev- 
eral localities  that  it  is  a  valuable  ore  for  producing  iron. 


FIG.   339 — NATURAL   AND  ARTIFICIAL   MAGNETS    ATTRACTING   IRON   FILINGS 

602.  Artificial  magnets.  —  The  ancients  learned  by 
stroking  pieces  of  steel  with  natural  magnets  that  the 
steel  would  become  magnetized.  Magnets  produced 
in  this  manner  are  known-  as  artificial.  They  are  now 
made  by  stroking  bars  of  steel  with  another  magnet  or 
an  electromagnet,  which  will  be  described  later. 

603.  Poles. — If  a  magnet  is  sprinkled  with  tacks  or  iron 
filings,  it  will  be  noticed  that  the  filings  attach  them- 
selves to  the  ends  of  the  magnet  but  not  to  the  middle  of 
it.  The  name  poles  has  been  given  to  these  places  where 
the  filings  adhere.  A  suspended. magnet  will  swing  so 
that  one  of  its  poles  points  toward  the  north.  This  pole 
is  then  known  as  the  -f-  or  north-seeking  pole,  or  simply 
the  north  pole  (N),  and  the  other  end  is  known  as  the  — 


ELECTRICAL    MACHINERY 


461 


or  south  pole    (S).     The   mariners'  and   the  engineers' 
compasses  work  upon  the  same  principle. 

604.  Magnetic  lines  of  force. — Again,  if  a  sheet  of 
paper  be  placed  over  a  magnet  and  some  filings  then 
dropped  upon  the  paper,  and  if  the  paper  is  slightly 
jarred,   the   filings  will   assume   the   position   shown   in 

Fig.  340.  From  this  it  is 
gathered  that  the  magnet 
has  lines  of  force  and  that 
these  lines  are  of  the  form, 
indicated  in  Fig.  341.  For 
convenience  it  is  assumed 
FIG.  340  that  the  lines  of  force  leave 

the  magnet  at  the  N  pole  and  enter  at  the  S  pole. 

605.  Laws  of  magnets. — If  the  north  and  the  south 
poles  of  two  magnets  are  determined  and  marked  it  will 
be  noticed  that  when  one  of  the  magnets  is  suspended  so 
it  is  free  to  move  in  any  direction  and  the  north  pole  of 
the  other  is  brought  close  to  the  south  pole  of  the  sus- 
pended one,  these  two  ends  attract  each  other.  If,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  N  ends  be  brought  together  it  will  be 


V/// 


, — Nh 


\ 


\  \ 


^ ^-S 


J   ' 

\ 


>-N 


< 


FIG.    341 — DIRECTIONS   OF   LINES   OF    FORCE 

noticed  that  they  repel.    Hence  the  general  law  of  mag- 
nets is  deduced :  Like  poles  repel  and  unlike  poles  attract. 
The  force  of  this  attraction  is  found  to  vary  inversely 
as  the  square  of  the  distance,  i.e.,  increasing  the  distance 


462  FARM    MOTORS  • 

between  the  poles  two  times  reduces  the  force  acting 
between  them  2X2  =  4  times.  In  other  words,  the 
force  is  one-fourth  as  strong. 

606.  Magnetic  materials. — Steel  and  iron  are  the  only 
common  substances  which  show  magnetic  properties  to 
any  appreciable  degree. 

STATIC  ELECTRICITY 

607.  Static  electricity. — If  a  hard  rubber  rod  be  rubbed 
with  flannel  and  then  brought  close  to  a  suspended  pith 
ball  the  ball  will  jum.p  toward  the  rod.  By  rubbing  the 
rod  has  been  electrified  and  the  action  of  the  charge 
is  to  attract  the  ball.  This  charge  of  electricity  is  not 
within  the  rod  but  is  on  the  surface  and  is  known  as 
stationary  or  static  electricity.  Another  example  of  this 
is  rubbing  a  glass  rod  with  silk. 

608.  Laws  of  electrical  attraction  and  repulsion. — If  a 
rubber  and  a  glass  rod  be  excited  and  suspended  as  shown 


G/Q53 


FIG.    342 

in  Fig.  342  and  brought  close  together  it  will  be  noticed 
that  they  attract  each  other,  but  if  two  rubber  rods  be 
suspended  in  the  same  way  and  brought  together,  they 
will  repel  each  other.  Hence  the  following  law  is  ad- 
vanced :  Electrical  charges  of  a  like  kind  repel  each  other 
and  those  of  an  unlike  kind  attract. 

609.  Density  of  charge  varies  with  form  of  surface. — 


ELECTRICAL   MACHINERY 


463 


Since  all  of  the  little  particles  of  a  charged  substance, 
because  of  their  mutual  repulsion,  tend  to  get  as  far  away 
from  each  other  as  possible,  the  density  of  a  charge  is 
very  much  greater  on  the  ends  of  an  oblong  body  than 
in  the  middle.  If  the  ends  be  drawn  to  a  point  the  charge 
will  become  so  intense  that  the  point  cannot  hold  it  all 
and  some  of  it  will  be  given  off  to  the  air. 

610.  Lightning  and  lightning  rod. — In  1752  Franklin 
with  his  famous  kite  and  key  learned  that  there  is  elec- 
tricity in  the  clouds.  He  also  showed  that  lightning  is 
only  a  huge  electric  spark  and  that  by  means  of  points 
like  lightning  rods  these  mammoth  sparks  may  be  dissi- 
pated into  the  earth.  As  the  cloud  which  is  charged  with 
electricity  approaches  it  induces  an  opposite  charge  in  the 
points  and  the  charge  is  then  quietly  conducted  away, 
while  if  the  points  are  not  there  the  electric  charge  will 

assume  such  a  volume  that 

when  the  cloud  does  give 

it    up    it    will    strike    the 

building    in    such   a   great 

bolt  that  damage  is  done. 

From  this  it  will  be  seen 

FIG.  343  that  lightning  rods  do  not 

protect  the  building  by  conducting  the  whole  charge  of  the 

stroke  away  at  once,  but  by  diffusing  and  thus  preventing 

the  charge  collecting  in  large  quantities. 

611.  Potential  difference  (P.D.). — If  water  is  placed  in 
a  tank  A,  Fig.  343,  it  will  run  through  the  f)ipe  C  into 
tank  B.  We  attribute  the  running  of  the  water  from 
tank  A  to  tank  B  to  the  difference  in  pressure  between 
the  two  tanks.  In  exactly  the  same  way  will  a  positive 
charge  of  electricity  flow  from  one  body  to  another. 
Thus,  just  as  water  tends  to  flow  from  higher  pressure 
to  lower,  does  electricity  of  a  higher  potential  flow  to  a 


c 

B 

-  —  A  : 

= 

464 


FARM    MOTORS 


lower.  Moreover,  if  the  tank  A  is  not  continuously  sup- 
plied with  water  the  tank  B  will  soon  be  filled  to  an  equal 
level;  likewise  if  current  is  not  supplied  to  the  body 
having  the  greater  potential,  the  potential  will  become 
the  same  in  the  two  bodies. 

612.  Volt  or  unit  of  potential  difference. — To  measure 
the  amount  of  work  required  to  transfer  a  charge  from 
one  body  of  a  high  potential  to  one  of  a  low  potential 
there  must  be  a  unit.  This  unit  is  called  the  volt  in 
honor  of  the  great  physicist  Volta.  It  is  roughly  equal 
to  the  P.D.  between  one  of  Volta's  cells  and  the  earth. 

CURRENT  OR  GALVANIC  ELECTRICITY 

613.  Current  electricity. — ^^Electricity  is  an  invisible 
agent  and  is  detected  only  by  its  effects  or  manifestations. 
Current  electricity  is  generally  detected  by  its  magnetic 
effects.  That  is,  near  all  currents  of  electricity  there  are 
indications  of  magnetism,  while  in  stationary  or  static 
electricity  there  are  none. 

614.  Shape  of  magnetic 
field  about  a  current. — If  a 
wire  carrying  a  heavy  cur- 
rent of  electricity  be  run 
through  a  cardboard  and 
filings  be  sprinkled  upon  the 
board  they  will  form  them- 
selves into  concentric  rings 
about  the  wire  (Fig.  344).  A 
compass  placed  in  this  field 
and  at  several  positions  will 
show  that  the  lines  of  force 
are  all  in  one  direction.  Re- 
verse the  current  and  the 
HG.  344  needlewillalso  reverse.  This 


ELECTRICAL   MACHINERY  465 

shows  that  there  is  a  direct  relation  between  the  direction  of 
the  current  in  the  wire  and  the  direction  of  the  magnetic 
Hnes  which  encircle  it. 

615.  Right-hand  rule. — Ampere  devised  a  rule  in  which 
the  right  hand  is  used  as  a  means  to  indicate  this  rela- 
tion in  all  cases.  Let  the  right  hand  grasp  the  wire  (Fig.  345) 
so  that  the  thumb  points  in  the  direction  in  which  the  cur- 
rent is  flowing  and  the  fingers  will  then  point  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  magnetic  lines  of  force.  Ampere  being  the 
investigator  who  made  quantitative  measurements  of  cur- 
rent electricity,  the  unit  of  measurement  was  named  am- 
pere in  his  honor.    Owing  to  the  peculiarity  of  electricity 

it  cannot  be  measured   in 


nit 


XD 


pints   and   gills   as   liquids 

but  can  be  measured  by  the 

chemical  effect  it  v/ill  pro- 

^^^-  •'^45  duce,  i.e.,  one  ampere  will 

deposit  in  one  second  0.0003286  gram  of  copper  in  a  copper 

voltmeter. 

616.  The    ammeter    is    an    instrument    used    for    the 
measurmg  of  amperes.     Commercial  ammeters  do   not 


FIG.    346— AMMETER  FIG.    347 — VOLTMETER 

measure  them   by  means  of  chemical   deposits,  but  by 
means  of  a  needle  enclosed  in  an  electrical  coil  in  such  a 


466  FARM    MOTORS 

manner  that  as  the  current  varies  the  magnetic  force  of 
the  coil  'will  vary,  and  cause  a  deflection  of  the  needle. 

617.  Voltmeter. — To  measure  the  electrical  pressure  or 
potential  difference  requires  an  instrument  similar  to  the 
ammeter  excepting  that  instead  of  having  a  few  coils  of 
wire  it  often  has  several  thousand  coils  of  very  fine  wire. 
Only  a  very  small  amount  of  current  will  pass  through 
these  numerous  coils. 

Electromotive  force.  —  The  total  electrical  pressure 
which  an  electrical  generator  is  able  to  exert  is  called  its 
electromotive  force,  commonly  abbreviated  to  E.M.F. 

618.  Electrical  power. — The  unit  of  electrical  power  is 
a  unit  of  electrical  work  performed  in  a  unit  of  time  and 
is  called  a  watt. 

The  product  of  volts  into  amperes  gives  watts,  i.e., 
volts  X  amperes  =  watts. 

Example. — An  incandescent  lamp  is  fed  by  a  current  having  a 
voltage  of  220  and  requires  0.3  ampere  of  current.  The  electrical 
power  consumed  is  then 

V  X  A  =  W, 
220  X  0.3  =  66.0  watts. 

Kilowatt. — ^The  watt  is  such  a  small  quantity  that  it 
has  become  the  custom  to  use  a  larger  unit  known  as  the 
kilowatt. 

I  kilowatt  =  1,000  watts, 

I  watt  =  1/1,000  kilowatt. 

Horse  power. — By  experiment  it  has  been  found  that 
•7375  foot  pound  per  second  =  i  watt. 

Now,  since  550  foot  pounds  a  second  is  the  equivalent 
of  one  mechanical  horse  power,  an  equivalent  rate  of 
electrical  working  would  be : 

=  746  watts  ■=  one  electrical  horse  power. 

.7375 

619.  Resistance. — If  two  pipes  of  the  same  diameter 
but  different  lengths  lead  f^om  a  tank  of  water,  the  water 


ELECTRICAL    MACHINERY  467 

will  flow  very  much  faster  from  the  short  pipe  than  from 
the  long  one.  From  this  we  learn  that  the  pressure  de- 
creases as  the  water  passes  through  the  pipes  and  the 
longer  the  pipe  the  more  it  falls.  The  friction  between 
the  water  and  the  inside  of  the  pipe  retards  the  flow 
and  is  known  as  resistance.  Electricity  flowing  over  a 
wire  is  an  analogous  case.  The  current  meets  with  re- 
sistance in  the  wire  and  there  is  a  fall  in  potential. 

Comparative  resistance. — To   measure   comparative  re- 
sistance, silver  is  the  unit  of  comparison,  it  having  the 
lowest  resistance  of  any  substance. 
Specific  resistance  of  some  metals: 

Silver,  i.oo; 

Copper,  1. 13; 

Aluminum,  2.00; 

Soft  iron,  7.40; 

Hard  steel,  21.00; 

Mercury,  62.70. 
Lazvs  of  resistance. — As  the  lengths  of  wire  increase  the 
resistance  increases  and  as  the  diameter  increases  the  re- 
sistance decreases.  Hence  the  following  law  is  deduced ; 
That  the  resistance  of  conductors  of  the  same  materials 
varies  in  direct  proportion  to  length  and  inversely  to  the 
area  of  the  cross-sections. 

The  resistance  of  iron  increases  with  rising  tempera- 
ture, likewise  with  nearly  all  metals,  while  the  resistance 
of  carbon  and  liquids  decreases  as  the  temperature  in- 
creases. 

Unit  of  resistance. — A  conductor  maintaining  a  P.  D.  of 
one  volt  between  its  terminals  and  carrying  a  current  of 
one  ampere  is  said  to  have  a  resistance  of  one  ohm.  The 
ohm  is  the  unit  of  resistance  and  is  named  in  honor  of 
George  Ohm,  the  great  German  physicist. 
Ohm's  law. — The  current  existing  in  a  circuit  is  always 


468  FARM    MOTORS 

directly  proportional  to  the  E.M.F.  in  the  circuit  and  in- 
versely proportional  to  the  resistance. 


Hence  if 


Likewise, 


C  =  current, 
E  =  E.M.F., 
R  =  resistance, 

Amperes 


or  current 


E.M.F. 


Resistance 


Ohms 

620.  Rheostats. — The  common  method  for  controlling 
the  current  required  for  various  electrical  purposes  is 
either  to  insert  or  to  remove  resistance.     By  Ohm's  law 


-=l 


(A) 


If  E  is  kept  constant  and  R  is  varied,  C  will  also  be 
varied  but  with  an  inverse  ratio.  Any  instrument  which 
will  change  the  resistance  in  a  circuit  without  breaking 
it  is  known  as  a  rheostat.    A  rheostat  can  be  constructed 


FIG.    348 — PRINCIPLE   OF  RHEOSTAT        FIG.    349 — COMMERCIAL    RHEOSTAT 

of  various  substances :  coils  of  iron  wire,  iron  plates  or 
strips,  carbon,  columns  of  liquids,  etc.  Fig.  348  illus- 
trates a  commercial  rheostat.     The  current  enters  at  A^ 


ELECTRICAL   MACHINERY  469 

A  Ohms    A  ohms   ^ohrns  passes  through  the  resist- 

r'TJ'^'^'T^^^^QrnTiryi^ .      ance  B,  which  can  be  in- 
I      creased  or  decreased  as  the 
FIG.  350— SERIES  CONNECTIONS         metalHc  arm   C  is   moved 

from  point  to  point,  and  out 
through  the  arm  C  and  pivot  D.  The  rheostat  absorbs 
energy  and  throws  it  off  as  heat  instead  of  doing  useful 
work  with  it. 

621.  Series  connections. — When  lines  are  connected  up 
as  in  Fig.  350,  so  that  the  same  current  flows  through 
each  one  of  them  in  succession,  they  are  said  to  be  con- 
nected in  series.  In  this  case  the  total  resistance  is  the 
sum  of  the  several  resistances. 

4  +  4+4  =  12. 

622.  Parallel  connection.  —  If  instead  of  connecting 
these  lines  up  as  in  Fig.  350  they  be  connected  as 
in  Fig.  351  they  will  be  in  parallel  and  the  total  resistance 
will  be  only  one-third  of  the  resistance  of  one  of  them. 
This  is  obvious,  for  in  this  connection  there  is  three  times 
as  much  cross-section  of  wire  carrying  the  current  as  in 
the  previous  case,  and  by  formula  (A)  the  resistance 
varies  inversely  with  the  sectional  area. 

623.  Shunts. — One  line  connected  in  parallel  with  an- 
other is  said  to  be  a  shunt  connection  to  the  other.  In 
Fig.  351A,  6'  is  shunted  across  the  resistance  R.  If  R  has  a 
greater  resistance  than  5"  it  will  carry  less  of  the  current, 
since  the  currents  carried  are  inversely  proportional  to 
the  resistance.  Hence  if  R  has  a  resistance  of  5  ohms 
and  5"  a  resistance  of  i  ohm,  R  will  carry  one-fikh  as 
much  current  as  vS  or  one-sixth  of  the  total  current. 


yiG.    351 — PARALLEL    CONNECTIONS  FI<^-    35^^      SHUNT 


470 


FARM    MOTORS 


624.  Cells. — If  a  strip  of  copper  be  connected  to  one  end 
of  a  strip  of  zinc  and  the  free  ends  of  the  two  metals 
be  immersed  in  dilute  sulphuric  acid  (Fig.  352)  a  cur- 
rent of  electricity  will  manifest  itself  in  the  wire.  If  the 
circuit  is  broken  and  the  plates  carefully  watched, 
bubbles  will  be  seen  to  collect  on  the  zinc  plate  and  none 
on  the  copper.  As  soon,  however,  as  the  circuit  is  com- 
pleted again  a  current  will  be  noticed,  also  a  great 
number  of  bubbles  will  appear  about  the  copper  plate. 
These  last  bubbles  are  bubbles  of  hydrogen  and  always 
appear  when  a  current  is  being  produced.  The  bubbles 
which  form  about  the  zinc  are  also  of  hydrogen,  but  they 
are  caused  by  the  zinc  being  impure  and  by  a  current 
starting  up  between  these  particles  of  impurities  and  the 
particles  of  zinc.  This  action  is  detrimental  to  the  cell 
and  should  be  stopped  by  covering  the  zinc  with  mercury. 

By  permitting  the  current 
of  this  cell  to  run  for  some 
time  it  will  be  noticed  that 
the  zinc  is  being  gradually 
eaten  away,  and  that  the 
copper  plate  does  not 
change.  From  this  it  is 
learned  that  when  the  cur- 
rent of  a  simple  cell  is 
formed  the  zinc  is  eaten 
away  and  hydrogen  collects 
on  the  copper.  The  cur- 
rent passes  out  from  the 
FIG.  352— CELL  copper  plate  and  in  on  the 

zinc.     In  other  words,  the  copper  plate  is  the  positive  ter- 
minal and  the  zinc  is  the  negative. 

625.  Polarization. — After  the  current  has  run  for  some 
time  in  the  cell  as  previously  described  the  strength  will 


ELECTRICAL    MACHINERY  471 

become  very  much  weaker,  but  if  the  copper  plate  be 
removed  and  wiped,  then  reinserted,  the  current  will  be 
as  strong  as  ever.  From  this  it  is  learned  that  the  hydro- 
gen bubbles  collect  on  the  copper  and  form  an  insulator, 
so  that  the  chemical  action  is  retarded.  This  forming  of 
hydrogen  bubbles  is  known  as  polarization,  and  in  a  good 
cell  there  must  be  some  means  to  check  it. 

The  various  forms  of  cells  now  in  use  differ  from  the 
above  only  by  using  different  electrodes  and  having  some 
method  for  checking  polarization.* 

626.  Dry  cells. — Dry  cells  differ  from  liquid  cells  only 
in  that  the  exciting  fluid  is  formed  into  a  jelly  or  held  in 
suspension  by  some  absorbent  such  as  sawdust  or  pith. 

In  the  common  commercial  type  the  zinc  element  is 
in  the  form  of  a  cylinder  and  holds  the  exciting  fluid  and 
carbon.  The  ends  of  the  cylinder  are  generally  sealed  with 
wax.  The  following  proportions  by  weight  will  make  a 
very  good  cell :  i  part  zinc  oxide ;  i  part  sal  ammoniac ; 
3  parts  plaster ;  i  part  zinc  chloride ;  2  parts  water. 

627.  Heating  effect  of  an  electric  current. — Owing  to 
the  resistance  to  an  electric  current  passing  through  a 
conductor,  heat  is  developed.  If  the  current  is  small  and 
the  cross-section  of  the  conductor  large  the  amount  of 
heat  developed  will  hardly  be  noticeable,  but  if  the  cur- 
rent is  strong  and  the  conductor  small  in  cross-section, 
the  latter  will  soon  become  hot,  often  red  hot,  and  some- 
times melt  down.  It  is  due  to  this  heating  effect  that 
many  machines  are  burned  out,  and  it  is  also  due  to  this 
same  effect  that  more  machines  are  saved. 

628.  Fuse. — If  a  piece  of  copper  wire  is  connected  in 
series  with  one  of  lead  and  a  current  sent  through  them 
the  lead  will  melt  down  at  a  little  over  600°  F.,  but  it 

*For  discussion  of  commercial  cells  see  any  text  book  on  physics 
or  elementary  electricity. 


472  FARM    MOTORS 

will  require  a  temperature  of  nearly  2,000°  to  melt  the 
copper. 

Because  lead  melts  at  such  a  low  temperature  it  is 
used  as  a  fuse.  A  fuse  consists  of  a  leaden  wtre  connected 
in  series  with  the  circuit  it  is  to  protect,  and  when  the 
current  becomes  too  excessive  the  lead  melts  out  and 
thus  opens  the  circuit.  Fuse  wires,  as  they  are  called,  are 
always  labeled  with  the  number  of  amperes  they  are 
supposed  to  carry. 

629.  Magnetic  properties  of  coils. — Let  a  wire  carry- 
ing a  current  be  formed  into  a  small  single  coil  and  bring 
a  compass  close  to  it.  When  the  compass  is  on  one  side 
of  the  coil  it  will  be  noticed  that  the  N  pole  is  attracted 
and  the  S  pole  repelled.  Change  the  compass  to  the 
other  side  and  the  reverse  will  be  found  true.  Now  re- 
verse the  direction  of  the  current  and  it  will  be  found 
that  the  needle  acts  in  just  the  opposite  manner.  From 
this  it  is  learned  that  the  electric  coil  is  simply  a  flat 
disk  magnet  with  a  N  and  a  S  pole,  the  same  as  any  other 
magnet. 

630.  Electromagnet— When  instead  of  forming  the 
wire  which  carries  the  current  into  a  single  loop  the  wire 
is  formed  into  several  loops  in  the  shape  of  a  helix,  a  com- 
pass brought  into  its  field  will  produce  the  same  actions 
of  the  needle  as  in  the  single  loop,  only  they  will  be 
much  more  violent.  Now,  if  a  soft  iron  bar,  commonly 
known  as  a  core,  be  placed  within  the  helix,  a  very  strong 
magnet  known  as  an  electromagnet  will  be  formed.  The 
lines  of  force  of  such  a  magnet  are  identical  with  those 
of  the  bar  magnet.  Hence,  if  the  electromagnet  is  con- 
structed so  that  the  lines  of  force  can  remain  in  iron 
throughout  their  entire  length,  the  magnet  will  be  much 
stronger.  For  this  reason  electromagnets  are  made  in 
the  horseshoe  form  as  shown  by  Fig.  353. 


ELECTRICAL   MACHINERY  473 

631.  Electric  bell. — ^The  electric  bell  is  a  simple  applica- 
tion of  the  electromagnet.  The  current  enters  at  A 
(Fig  354),  passes  through  the  horseshoe  magnet  B,  over 
the  closed  circuit  breaker  C,  and  out  at  D.  The  instant 
the  circuit  is  completed  through  the  coils  a  magnet  is 
formed,  which  attracts  the  armature  E,  and  rings  the 
gong  F.     But  as  soon  as  the  armature  is  drawn  down 


FIG.  353— ELECTROMAGNET 


FIG.    354 — ELECTRIC   BELL 


against  the  poles  ot  the  magnet  the  circuit  is  broken  at  C, 
hence  the  current  stops  flowing  and  the  magnet  becomes 
nil.  As  soon  as  the  magnet  has  no  strength  the  force  of 
the  spring  G  draws  the  armature  back  and  makes  contact 
at  C  again,  and  the  operation  is  repeated. 

632.  Electromagnetic  induction. — In  a  previous  para- 
graph it  has  been  shown  that  there  is  a  magnetic  field  sur- 
rounding all  electric  currents.  If  a  wire  be  arranged  so 
as  to  form  a  closed  circuit  and  then  moved  across  a  mag- 
netic field  a  reverse  action  of  that  explained  above  will 
take  place.    In  other  words,  if  a  closed  circuit  be  moved 


474  FARM    MOTORS 

through  a  magnetic  field  a  current  will  be  set  up.  This 
is  the  most  important  part  of  electricity,  for  upon  it  is- 
based  the  operation  of  nearly  all  forms  of  commercia* 
electrical  machinery. 

633.  Currents  induced  in  a  coil  by  a  magnet. — A  sensi- 
tive galvanometer  is  connected  in  a  circuit  with  a  wire 
(Fig.  355)  in  such  a  manner  that  the  galvanometer  is  not 
aflfected  by  the  magnet  and  yet  the  wire  can  come  into 
the  magnetic  field.  If  that  part  of  the  wire  between  A 
and  B  be  very  quickly  moved  down  across  the  field  the 
galvanometer  needle  will  be  deflected.  When  the  needle 
comes  to  zero  and  the  wire  is  moved  across  the  field  in 
the  opposite  direction  the  needle  is  again  deflected,  but 
the  opposite  way.  If  the  wire  be  moved  into  the  mag- 
netic field  and  held  still  the  needle  will  come  to  zero  and 
remain  there  until  the  wire  is  set  in  motion.  Again,  if 
the  wire  is  moved  back  and  forth  across  the  magnetic 
field  the  needle  will  vibrate  back  and  forth  across  zero, 
showing  that  there  is  a  current  but  an  alternating  one. 

When  the  backward  and 
forward  motions  of  the  wire 
have  become  fast  enough  the 
needle  of  the  galvanometer 
will  practically  stand  at  zero, 
only  giving  enough  vibration 
to  show  that  there  is  an  al- 
ternating current  affecting 
it.  By  trial  the  following  re- 
sults will  be  obtained : 

I.  When    the    magnet    is 
moved  and  the  wire  held  sta- 
tionary the  same  results  are 
noted. 
p.j(j  ^cc  2.  When   the  position   of 


ELECTRICAL   MACHINERY  475 

the  poles  of  the  magnet  is  reversed  the  current  is  also  re- 
versed. 

3.  When  an  electromagnet  is  used  in  place  of  the  per- 
manent one  the  same  results  are  noticed. 

4.  The  induced  current  is  produced  by  the  expenditure 
of  muscular  energy  and  does  not  weaken  the  magnet. 

5.  When  the  wire  is  moved  so  as  to  cut  the  magnetic 
lines  of  force  at  right  angles  the  momentarily  induced 
current  is  greatest. 

6.  The  direction  of  the  lines  of  force  is  at  right  angles 
to  the  direction  of  the  current  in  the  wire. 

634.  Factors  upon  v^hich  the  value  of  induced  E.M.F, 
depends. — If  the  wire  in  Fig.  355  be  very  quickly  moved 
across  the  magnetic  lines  of  force  the  galvanometer 
needle  will  deflect  farther  than  when  the  wire  is  moved 
slowly.  Also,  if  two  magnets  with  their  similar  poles 
together  are  used  instead  of  one  and  the  wire  is  moved 
at  the  same  velocity  as  previously  the  needle  will  have 
a  greater  deflection.  Again,  if  a  coil  of  wire  be  used  in- 
stead of  a  single  one  the  deflection  of  the  needle  will  be 
greater.  Hence  it  is  obvious  that  the  induced  E.M.F. 
is  dependent  upon  and  proportional  to  the  number  of 
magnetic  lines  cut,  the  speed  or  rate  at  which  they  are 
cut  and  the  number  of  wires  cutting  them. 

635.  Currents  induced  in  rotating  coils. — Instead  of 
cutting  the  magnetic  lines  of  force  of  a  strong  magnet 
with  a  single  wire  let  them  be  cut  with  a  coil  of  400  or 
500  turns.  Let  the  coil  be  small  enough  so  it  will  rotate 
between  the  poles  of  a  horseshoe  magnet.  With  the 
coil  at  right  angles  to  the  plane  of  the  poles  rotate  it 
180°  and  note  the  direction  of  deflection  of  the  galvanom- 
eter needle.  Rotate  the  coil  the  other  180°  and  bring 
it  to  the  position  from  which  it  started  and  again  note 
the  direction  of  the  deflection  of  the  galvanometer  needle. 


476 


FARM    MOTORS 


The  needle  shows  that  a  current  has  been  induced  which 
has  two  directions  of  flow  during  each  revolution  of  the 
coil.  This  induced  current  is  produced  in  exactly  the 
same  manner  in  which  currents  are  produced  by 
dynamos. 

636.  Dynamos  are  machines  for  converting  mechanical 

into  electrical  energy.  They 
cannot  develop  energy  but 
simply  change  the  form 
of  the  energy  delivered  to 
them.  Since  they  cannot 
develop  energy,  the  amount 
of  current  delivered  by 
them  is  wholly  dependent 
upon  the  amount  of  me- 
chanical energy  supplied. 
In  principle  the  dynamo 
consists  of  two  parts :  a 
magnetic  field  made  up  of 

electromagnets  and  a  number  of  coils  of  wire  wound  upon 

an  iron  core  forming  an  armature. 

637.  Simple  alternating-current  dynamo.— Consider  the 
single  loop  of  wire  ABCD  (Fig.  356)  as  the  armature 
and  the  poles  N  and  S  as  the  magnets  of  a  dynamo.  With 
the  armature  in  the  position  it  is  shown  there  is  no  cur- 
rent developed.  The  armature  is  for  the  instant  moving 
parallel  to  the  magnetic  lines  of  force  and  consequently 
is  cutting  none  of  them.  As  the  armature  moves  from  a 
position  perpendicular  to  the  lines  of  force  to  a  position 
parallel  to  them,  the  number  of  lines  it  cuts  increases 
until  it  reaches  the  perpendicular  position,  and  from  then 
on  until  it  has  traversed  180°  the  number  of  lines  cut  de- 
creases until  none  are  cut.  From  this  it  is  obvious  that 
with  the  armature  in  the  first  and  last  positions  no  cur- 


ELECTRICAL    MACHINERY 


477 


rent  is  produced  and  when  the  armature  is  cutting  the 
greatest  number  of  lines  of  force  the  current  is  at  a 
maximum.  When  the  armature  is  turned  through  the 
remaining  i8o°  of  the  revolution  the  same  action  takes 
place.  As  the  side  AD  moves  down  the  current  flows  in 
the  direction  indicated,  but  as  the  side  BC  moves  down  it 
is  reversed.  Hence  for  one  half  of  the  revolution  the  cur- 
rent flows  in  one  direction  and  for  the  other  half  it  flows 
in  the  opposite  direction.  One  end  of  the  coil  is  attached 
to  the  metal  ring  E,  and  the  other  end  is  attached  to  the 
ring  F.  Both  rings  are  fixed  to  the  shaft,  so  they  rotate 
with  it. 

Brushes  C  and  H  are  in  continual  contact  with  the  rings, 
so  the  current  is  taken  from  them  and  carried  over  the 
circuit. 

Armature. — It  might  be  assumed  that  the  iron  part  of 
an  armature  of  a  dynamo  is  only  to  carry  the  numerous 
wires  which  are  used  for  cutting  the  magnetic  lines  of 
force,  but  this  is  not  the  only  use  for  the  iron  core.  The 
iron  carries  the  magnetic  lines  of  force  very  much  bet- 
ter than  they  travel  through  air,  and  for  this  reason  the 


FIG.  357 


FIG.     358 — MAGNETO    ARMATURE 


air  space  between  the  fields  is  as  nearly  filled  with  the 
armature  as  possible.  Fig.  357  shows  the  path  of  the 
magnetic  lines  through  a  ring  armature. 


47S 


FARM    MOTORS 


FIG.    359 — SYSTEM   OF  WIRING  FOR  A 
MULTIPOLAR    ALTERNATOR 


638.  Magneto  alternator. 

— Fig.  358  shows  a  magneto 
armature  with  the  wires  off. 
This  is  probably  the  most 
simple  commercial  electrical- 
current  generator  used.  It 
is  only  applicable  for  such 
uses  as  cigar  lighters,  tele- 
phone calls  and  line  testers. 
For  large  purposes  it  is  too 
inefficient. 

639.  Multipolar  alternator. — The  number  of  alternations 
in  a  dynamo  as  just  described  is  4,000  a  minute  with  a 
speed  of  2,000  revolutions  a  minute.  This  speed  is  as 
high  as  advisable,  but  the  number  of  alternations  is  only 
about  half  as  high  as  is  considered  goo'd  practice.  For 
this  reason  large  commercial  dynamos  are  built  with 
several  poles,  as  shown  by  Fig.  359,  and  the  number 
of  revolutions  reduced.  The  dotted  lines  in  Fig.  359 
represent  the  directions  and  paths  of  the  lines  of  force. 
The  full  lines  indicate  the  windings,  and  the  arrowheads 
the  direction  of  current.  By  carefully  following  out  the 
direction  of  the  induced  current  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
coils  passing  beneath  the  north  poles  have  a  current  set 
up  in  them  which  is  opposite  in  direction  to  that  set  up 
in  the  coils  passing  under  the  south  poles.  By  inspecting 
the  windings  it  will  be  noted  that  the  direction  is  reversed 
between  each  set  of  poles,  hence  the  current  set  up 
through  the  system  is  the  sum  of  all  the  currents  set  up 
at  each  pole.  As  the  coils  of  the  armature  pass  across 
the  points  midway  between  the  poles,  the  direction  of 
current  is  alternated.  The  number  of  alternations  to  the 
minute  is  found  by  multiplying  the  number  of  poles  by 
the  number  of  revolutions  to  the  minute. 


ELECTRICAL    MACHINERY 


479 


640.  Direct-current  dynamo. — For  a  great  many  pur- 
poses it  is  desirable  to  have  a  direct  current,  that  is,  one 
which  always  flows  in  one  direction  the  same  as  a  cur- 
rent from  a  cell.  To  do  this  some  device  must  be  applied 
to  the  dynamo  just  at  the  point  where  the  current  leaves 
the  armature  and  before  it  reaches  the  external  circuit. 
This  device  as  used  in  a  direct-current  dynamo  is  known 
as  a  commutator. 

Commutators  are  practically  split  rings  secured  to,  but 
insulated  from,  the  shaft  of  the  armature.  They  take  the 
place  of  the  accumulating  rings  of  the  alternator.  Each 
part  of  the  commutator  is  insulated  from  the  other  parts. 


FIG.  360 


FIG.  361 


Principle  of  the  commutator. — Fig.  360  shows  a  simple 
commutator  connected  to  a  coil  which  represents  an 
armature.  A  and  B  are  the  segments  of  the  metal  ring, 
each  of  which  is  connected  to  the  armature.  As  the  arma- 
ture rotates  in  the  direction  indicated  by  the  arrow  the 
current  passes  off  through  the  side  C,  out  over  the  ex- 
ternal circuit  through  the  segment  A,  and  in  through 
the  segment  B  and  side  D.  When  the  side  D  has  passed 
into  the  position  of  side  C,  the  current  goes  out  over  the 
circuit  in  a  similar  manner.    The  brushes  E  and  F  must 


480  FARM    MOTORS 

be  set  so  they  close  contact  with  each  side  respec- 
tively and  make  contact  with  the  other  side  at  the  instant 
the  current  in  the  armature  changes  direction. 

641.  Ring  armature,  direct-current  dynamo. — A  ring 
armature  may  be  made  for  a  direct-current  dynamo  by 
winding  on  the  iron  ring  a  series  of  coils,  the  ending  of 
each  coil  being  connected  to  the  beginning  of  the  next. 
The  junction  of  the  two  is  connected  to  a  section  of  the 
commutator.  As  the  number  of  groups  of  coils  is  in- 
creased the  number  of  sections  of  the  commutator  must 
also  be  increased.  An  eight-coil  ring  armature  is  shown 
in  Fig.  361  ;  the  direction  of  current  is  indicated  by  the 
arrows.  The  induced  current  from  both  halves  of  the 
armature  flows  up  toward  the  positive  brush  5,  out  over 
the  external  circuit,  back  in  through  the  negative  brush  C 
and  through  each  half  of  the  armature  to  B  again.  As 
each  coil  passes  from  the  field  of  the  N  pole  and  enters 
the  field  of  the  S  pole,  commutation  takes  place  and  the 
direction  of  current  is  reversed.  The  brushes  are  located 
at  this  point  and  the  current  from  both  sides  is  con- 
ducted oflf  on  the  same  wire.  When  the  brushes  pass 
from  one  of  the  commutator  bars  to  another  there  is  an 
instant  when  the  armature  sections  are  short-circuited ; 
but  this  is  at  the  instant  when  these  coils  are  moving 
parallel  to  the  lines  of  force,  hence  there  is  no  current 
passing  through  them. 

642.  Drum  armature,  direct-current  dynamo.— Instead 
of  winding  the  armature  coils  upon  an  iron  ring  some- 
times they  are  wound  upon  a  drum.  Fig.  362  shows  the 
principle  of  the  drum-wound  armature  suitable  for  a 
bipolar  field.  Like  the  windings  of  the  ring  armature 
the  coils  are  in  series  and  both  halves  are  parallel  with 
the  external  circuit. 

643.  Comparison  of  the  drum  and  ring  armature. — By 


ELECTRICAL  MACHINERY  48 1 

reference  to  Fig.  357  of  a  ring  armature  it  will  be  noticed 
that  the  inside  parts  of  each  coil  on  the  armature  do  not 
cut  lines  of  force,  hence  these  lines  conduct  only  the  cur- 
rent and  may  be  known  as  so  much  dead  wire.  In  the 
drum-wound  armature  both  sides  of  the  coil  cut  lines 


FIG.    362 — DRUM    ARMATURE 

of  force  and  the  only  dead  wire  is  across  each  end.  Al- 
though the  drum-wound  armature  has  less  dead  wire 
than  the  ring-wound,  it  is  not  as  convenient  to  repair. 
For  this  reason  high-voltage  direct-current  arc-lighting 
dynamos  are  generally  constructed  with  ring  armatures. 
A  combination  of  the  two,  which  is  known  as  a  drum- 
wound  ring  armature,  is  extensively  used  in  practice. 

644.  Self-exciting  principle  of  dynamos. — In  the  earlier 
types  of  dynamos  the  field  magnets  were  always  sepa- 
rately excited  by  either  a  battery  or  a  magneto.  Later  it 
was  learned  that  the  soft  iron  of  the  field  magnet  after 
once  being  excited  retains  some  of  the  magnetism.  Since 
then  all  direct-current  d3^namos  are  built  on  this  principle. 
There  is  sufficient  magnetism  remaining  in  the  fields  so 
that  when  the  armature  is  up  to  speed  it  cute  enough 


4S2 


FARM    MOTORS 


lines  of  force  to  induce  a  small  current  into  the  circuit 
around  the  field  coils.  This  current  more  highly  excites 
the  field  magnets  until  the  dynamo  soon  picks  up  or 
establishes  its  rated  E.M.F. 

645.  Shunt  dynamo. — In  the  so-called  shunt-wound 
dynamo  a  small  portion  of  the  current  is  led  off  from 
the  brushes  bb  (Fig.  363),  and  through  a  great  many 
turns  of  very  fine  wire  which  encircle  the  core  of  the 
magnet.  In  such  a  dynamo,  as  the  load  increases  the 
E.M.F.  slightly  decreases,  and  as  the  load  decreases  the 


FIG.    363 — SHUNT-WOUND    DYNAMO      FIG.    364 — SERIES-WOUND    DYNAMO 


E.M.F.  increases.  Hence,  if  the  current  fluctuations  are 
great  and  quite  frequent  it  would  keep  an  attendant  oc- 
cupied to  keep  the  field  resistance  regulated  for  the  load. 
(See  Fig.  368.) 

646.  Series-wound  dynamo. — In  the  so-called  series- 
wound  machines  the  whole  of  the  current  is  carried  through 
a  few  turns  of  very  coarse  wire  which  encircles  the  field  mag- 
nets (Fig.  364).  Since  every  change  of  current  alters  the 
field  magnetizing  current,  consequently  in  the  current  in- 
duced in  the  armature  the  E.M.F.  at  the  brushes  will  vary 
with  every  change  of  resistance  in  the  external  circuit. 

647.  Compound-wound    dynamo. — In    the    compound- 


ELECTRICAL   MACHINERY  483 

wound  machines  there  is  both  a  series  and  a  shunt  coil 
surrounding  the  cores  of  the  field  magnets.  This  style 
of  machine  is  designed  to  give  automatically  a  better 
regulation  of  voltage  on  constant-potential  circuits  than 
is  possible  on  the  shunt-wound  machines,  and  yet  pos- 
sesses the  characteristics  of  both  the  series  and  shunt  ma- 
chines. Like  the  shunt  machine  a  part  of  the  current  ic 
shunted  from  the  brushes  and  around  the  magnet  cores, 
also  the  external  circuit  is  thrown  around  these  cores. 
These  machines  are  designed  especially  for  conditions  in 
which  the  load  is  very  variable,  as  street  car  work,  in- 
candescent lighting  and  for  commercial  power  purposes. 

648.  Classification  of  dynamos.  —  Dynamos  may  be 
classified  according  to  their  mechanical  arrangement  as 
follows : 

1.  Stationary  field  magnet  with  revolving  armature. 

2.  Stationary  armature  with  revolving  field  magnet, 

3.  Stationary    armature    and    stationary    field    magnet    with    re- 
volving core. 

They  may  also  be  classified  by  mechanical  designs  as 
follows : 

1.  Direct-current  machines. 

2.  Alternating-current  machines. 

And  by  electrical  arrangement  as 

3.  Shunt-wound. 

4.  Series-wound. 

5.  Compound-wound. 

649.  Armatures. — The  armature  core  introduced  into 
the  magnetic  circuit  to  help  lower  the  reluctance  is  also 
an  electrical  conductor,  and  when  rotated  in  a  magnetic 
field  will  have  currents  set  up  within  itself.  These  cur- 
rents are  independent  of  the  external  circuit,  hence  are 


484 


FARM   MOTORS 


FIG.   365 — BIPOLAR  DIRECT-CURRENT  DYNAMO 


a  loss.  They  are  known  as  eddy  currents  and  the  loss 
is  termed  eddy  current  loss.  Fig.  366  shows  a  section 
of  a  solid  armature  and  the  direction  of  these  currents. 
Not  only  do  these  currents  create  a  loss  themselves  but 
they  heat  the  armature  windings  and  thus  increase  the 
armature  resistance.  If  these  large  eddy  currents  can  be 
broken  up  into  smaller  ones  the  loss  will  not  be  so  great. 
To  break  up  these  eddies  armatures  are  now  generally 
built  up  of  a  large  number  of  sheets  of  iron  with  insula- 
tion between  the  sheets.     The  insulation  used  for  this 


ELECTRICAL    MACHINERY  485 

purpose  IS  generally  a  coat  of  rust  or  a  sheet  of  tissue 
paper. 

650.  Hysteresis. — Another  source  of  loss  in  an  arma- 
ture is  due  to  the  fact  that  every  time  the  current  alter- 
nates the  polarity  of  the  magnetism  is  reversed.  If  the 
armature  is  making  2,000  revolutions  a  minute  and  there 
are  two  alterations  in  each  revolution  there  would  be 
4,000  alterations  of  the  magnetism.  This  causes  heat  in 
the  armature  which  is  not  accounted  for  in  the  external 
circuit,  hence  is  a  loss.  Not  only  is  there  loss  by  heat 
in  the  armature,  but  the  heat  acts  on  the  coils  and  in- 
creases the  resistance  in  them  and  creates  another  loss. 
The  loss  in  an  armature  due  to  these  alterations  of  mag- 
netism and  the  heat  produced  thereby  is  known  as 
hysteresis  loss. 

651.  Insulation  of  an  armature. — The  insulation  of  an 
armature  is  probably  the  most  essential  part  of  a  dynamo. 
After  it  is  put  on  in  the  various  places  where  it  is  needed 
it  must  be  baked  and  all  moisture  evaporated  out  of  it. 
After  an  arm.ature  is  thoroughly  prepared  for  use  it  is 
generally  tested  for  poor  insulation.  The  potential  dif^ 
ference  for  the  test  is  about  eight  times  as  much'  as  the 
armature  is  expected  to  carry.  Jf  there  is  any  place  where 
the  electricity  breaks  through  the  insulation  it  is  detected 
by  means  of  a  sensitive  galvanometer. 

652.  Capacity  of  dynamos. 

— It  would  seem  that  the 
amount  of  current  that  a  dy- 
namo could  produce  might  be 
indefinite  if  enough  power  be 
supplied.  This  is  true  in  a 
certain  sense,  but  there  is  a 
limit  and  this  will  appear  in 
FIG.  366  o^^  of  the  following  ways: 


486  FARM    MOTORS 

653.  By  poor  regulation  of  voltage. — An  overload  will 
cause  an  excessive  drop  of  the  E.M.F.  at  the  machine. 
This  will  decrease  the  potential  difference  at  the  brushes 
and  cause  a  weak  current  over  the  line. 

By  excessive  heating. — The  heat  from  an  armature 
increases  four  times  for  each  doubling  of  the  cur- 
rent. At  this  rate  the  armature  would  soon  become  red 
hot.  It  would  work  at  a  little  less  than  red  heat,  but  even 
this  much  heat  would  break  down  the  insulation.  TJie 
armature  should  not  become  warmer  than  212°  F.,  and 
the  general  custom  is  not  to  run  it  at  a  higher  tem- 
perature than  70°  above  the  surrounding  air. 

654.  Commercial  rating  of  dynamos. — Dynamos  are 
rated  according  to  the  number  of  kilowatts  they  will  carry 
in  the  external  circuit  without  excessive  heating.  For 
example,  a  person  calls  for  a  60  K.  W.  iio-volt  generator. 
This  means  that  he  desires  a  machine  which  will  deliver 
60  K.  W.  to  the  external  circuit  and  maintain  a  potential 
difference  of  no  volts  across  the  brushes.  Owing  to 
losses  in  the  machine  such  a  machine  may  develop 
63  K.  W.  and  still  have  only  60  K.  W.  available  for  use 
in  the  external  circuit. 

655.  Efficiency  of  dynamos. — The  efficiency  of  a  dyna- 
mo is  the  ratio  of  its  electrical  output  to  the  mechanical 
energy  exerted  upon  it.  For  a  i  K.  W.  machine  it  is  only 
about  50  per  cent,  and  in  generation  of  several  thousand 
kilowatts  it  is  about  95  per  cent. 

656.  Sparking  at  the  commutator. — Sparking  at  the 
commutator  is  the  most  serious  trouble  the  attendant  will 
have  with  a  dynamo,  provided  he  keeps  all  other  parts 
clean,  and  the  insulation  does  not  break  down  or  the 
machine  become  short-circuited.  There  are  several 
causes  for  a  dynamo  to  spark,  some  of  which  are  : 

I.  Brushes  not  set  at  neutral  point.     This  can  be  remedied  by 


ELECTRICAL    MACHINERY  487 

working  the  brushes  back  and  forth  until  the  proper  position 
is  located. 

2.  Brushes  not  spaced  according  to  commutator  bars.  The  com- 

mutator bars  should  be  carefully  counted  and  the  brushes 
accurately  set  between  them. 

3.  Brushes    do    not    bear    against    commutator    with    sufficient 

pressure. 

4.  Brushes  do  not  bear  on  the  commutator  with  a  perfect  surface. 

5.  Collection  of  dirt  and  grease  which  prevents  good  contact  of 

the  brushes  on  the  commutator. 

6.  A  high  or  low  commutator  bar  which  causes  poor  contact. 

7.  Commutator  not  worn  perfectly  round,  consequently  poor  con- 

tact with  the  brushes. 

657.  Repairing  a  dynamo. — If  the  insulation  breaks 
down,  a  wire  burns  out  or  the  commutator  becomes  worn 
out  of  round,  an  expert  should  be  called  in,  and  generally 
the  defective  part  will  have  to  be  sent  to  the  factory  for 
repairs.  Sometimes  a  good  machinist  can  put  the  arma- 
ture in  a  metal  lathe  and  turn  it  down  round.  A  good 
man  with  a  file  can  work  down  a  high  bar,  and  holding 
a  piece  of  sandpaper  on  the  commutator  while  it  is  in 
motion  will  clean  it  of  all  oil  and  dirt. 

MOTORS. 

658.  Comparison  with  a  dynamo. — A  dynamo  is  a  ma- 
chine for  converting  mechanical  energy  into  electrical. 
An  electrical  motor  is  just  the  reverse;  it  is  a  machine 
for  converting  electrical  energy  into  mechanical.  Any 
machine  that  can  be  used  as  a  dynamo  can  when  supplied 
with  electrical  power  be  used  as  a  motor.  Dynamos  and 
motors  are  convertible  machines ;  thus  the  various  dis- 
cussions will  apply  as  well  to  the  motor  as  to  the  dynamo. 

659.  Principles  of  the  motor. — It  has  been  sho^yn  that 
when  a  coil  of  wire  is  placed  in  a  magnetic  field  and  ro- 
tated an  electrical  current  is  produced.  If  the  oppo- 
site of  this  is  done,  i.e.,  if  a  current  is  passed  through  the 


488 


FARM   MOTORS 


coil,  the  coil  will  lend  to  rotate.  This  is  the  principle  of 
the  electric  motor:  instead  of  taking  a  current  ofif  of  the 
armature,  one  is  put  into  it  and  at  the  same  time  sent 
through  the   fields..     The   current  passing  through   the 


FIG.  367 — MULTIPOLAR    MOTOR 


fields  induces  magnetism  in  them:  the  lines  of  force  pro- 
duced by  this  magnetism  draw  on  the  armature  and  cause 
it  to  revt>lve.  By  studying  Fig.  356  it  will  be  noticed 
that  the  coil  will  revolve  until  the  plane  of  the  coil 
is  parallel  to  the  lines  of  force,  and  then  stop.  This  same 
condition  would  take  place  in  the  motor  if  it  were  not  for 
the  commutator.  Just  at  the  instant  the  coil  is  brought 
to  the  position  to  stop,  the  commutator  changes  the  di- 


ELECTRICAL   MACHINERY  489 

rection  of  the  current  and  the  turning  effect  is  thrown  to 
the  other  side  and  the  armature  moves  on. 

Counter  electromotive  force  of  a  motor. — The  armature 
wires  of  a  motor  rotating  in  its  own  magnetic  field  cut 
the  lines  of  force  as  if  the  motor  were  being  driven  as  a 
dynamo,  consequently  there  is  an  induced  E.M.F.  in 
them.  The  direction  of  this  induced  E.M.F.  is  op- 
posite to  that  of  the  applied  pressure.  Such  an  induced 
E.M.F.  is  known  as  counter  electromotive  force  andjis 
an  important  property  of  the  motor.  A  motor  without 
load  will  run  with  sufficient  speed  that  its  counter  electro- 
motive force  will  very  nearly  equal  the  applied  pressure. 
The  counter  E.M.F.  will  never  be  as  great  as  the  ap- 
plied force.  There  will  always  be  a  difference  between 
these,  equal  to  the  loss  due  to  resistance  in  the  motor 
armature.  The  power  of  a  motor  increases  as  the  counter 
E.M.F.  decreases  until  the  counter  E.M.F.  is  one-half  of 
the  applied  E.M.F.,  then  the  power  of  the  motor  decreases. 
The  maximum  power  of  a  motor  is  reached  when  the  counter 
E.M.F.  is  one-half  of  the  applied  E.M.F. 

Losses  of  a  motor. — The  losses  of  a  motor,  like  those 
of  a  dynamo,  are  due  to  resistance  in  the  armature  fric- 
tion, eddy  currents  and  hysteresis. 

660.  Operating  motors. — The  resistance  in  the  arma- 
ture of  a  motor  is  so  low  that  if  a  motor  were  directly  con- 
nected to  the  supply  mains,  too  great  a  current  would 
flow  through  it  before  a  counter  E.M.F.  could  be  set  up, 
consequently  the  machine  would  be  practically  short-cir- 
cuited and  the  windings  damaged.  For  this  reason  a 
rheostat  known  as  a  starting  rheostat  is  inserted  into  the 
armature  circuit  of  a  shunt  motor.  To  start  the  motor, 
switch  A  (Fig.  368)  is  closed,  and  this  throws  the  cur- 
rent into  the  fields  and  excites  them;  then  the  arm  is 
moved  over  the  starting  box  to  point  one,  and  when 


490 


FARM    MOTORS 


r^^mrx 


SHUNT  riELO 


nnnnnn 


STARTING 

RHEOSTAT 
OVNAMO  MOTOR 

FIG.   368 — WIRING   SYSTEM   FOR  DYNAMO   AND   MOTOR 

the  motor  has  attained  its  speed  for  this  point  it  is 
moved  on  up  to  point  two,  then  three,  and  so  on  until 
the  last  point  is  reached  and  the  motor  is  directly  con- 
nected to  the  feed  wire.  To  stop  the  motor,  switch  A 
should  be  opened,  and  if  the  arm  B  is  not  an  automatic 
shifter,  it  should  be  thrown  back  to  its  original  position 
ready  for  starting  the  next  time.  Most  of  these  arms  are 
now  made  so  they  work  against  a  spring,  and  when  the 
last  point  is  reached  an  electromagnet  attracts  the  arm 
sufficiently  to  hold  it  in  position;  then  when  the  circuit 
is  broken  the  magnet  loses  its  attraction  for  the  arm,  and 
the  spring  draws  it  back. 

661.  The  electric  arc. — When  a  current  of  from  6  to 
10  amperes  under  a  pressure  of  about  45  volts  is  passed 
through  two  rods  of  carbon  with  their  ends  first  in  con- 
tact, then  gradually  drawn  apart  to  a  distance  of  about 
1/8  inch,  a  brilliant  arc  of  flame  is  established  between 
them.  This  arc,  known  as  the  electric  arc,  is  made  of 
a  vapor  of  carbon.  As  the  current  passes  across  the  con- 
tact points  the  high  resistance  produces  enough  heat  to 


ELECTRICAL    MACHINERY 


491 


iHiiiif^ijyi^  ' 


FIG.    369 — COMMERCIAL   SWITCHBOARD 


disintegrate  the  carbon  and  cause  it  practically  to  boil ; 
this  boiling  throws  off  a  vapor  which  is  a  conductor  of 
electricity  and  as  a  consequence  conducts  the  current 
across  the  gap.  The  temperature  of  the  arc  at  its  hottest 
point  is  about  3,500°  C,  which  is  about  twice  the  tem- 
perature required  to  melt  platinum,  the  most  refractory 
of  metals. 

Arc  lamps  are  rated  according  to  the  watts  consumed. 
They  generally  range  from  6  X  45  =  270  watts  to  10  X  45 
=  450  watts.  About  12  per  cent  of  the  energy  supplied  to 
an  arc  light  really  appears  as  light;  the  rest  goes  to 
produce  the  heat  evolved, 


492 


FARM    MOTORS 


Since  the  carbons  of  the  arc  lights  are  constantly  wast- 
ing away  there  must  be  some  device  to  regulate  the  dis- 
tance they  are  from  each  other  and  to  work  automatically 
to  keep  them  at  this  distance.  An  ingenious  appliance 
of  electromagnets  and  clutches  accomplishes  this  action 
and  is  explained  in  any  book  upon  electric  lighting. 

662.  Incandescent  lamps. — It  is  on  the  principle  of  the 
heated  wire  that  we  get  light  from  the  in- 
candescent lamp.  Referring  to  Fig.  370, 
connections  are  made  with  the  lamp  at  A 
and  B.  At  CC  are  bits  of  platinum  wires 
attached  to  the  carbonized  filament  D.  E 
is  the  highly  exhausted  globe.  If  the  car- 
bonized filament  were  in  the  air,  the  intense 
heat  created  within  it  due  to  the  resistance 
of  the  current  would  immediately  burn  it 
up,  but  since  it  is  in  almost  perfect  vacuum, 
it  will  last  from  600  to  800  hours.  Even  at 
the  end  of  this  period  the  filament  does  not 
always  break,  but  it  becomes  so  disinte- 
grated that  the  candle  power  is  low  and 

further  use  is  not  satisfactory. 

663.  Commercial  rating  of  incandescent  lamps. — 
Before  a  lamp  is  put  upon  the  market  it  is  compared 
with  a  lamp  of  known  brilliancy.  While  it  is  being  com- 
pared with  the  standard  lamp,  measurements  of  its 
voltage  and  current  are  made.  After  this  is  done  the 
lamp  is  labeled  with  the  voltage  it  carries,  its  candle 
power  and  watts  consumption.  A  16  C.P.  60-watt  iio- 
volt  lamp  will  require 

^     W      160 

Lamps  are  usually  made  for  circuits  of  50  to  60  volts, 
no  to  115  volts  and  220  volts  with  constant  potential. 


FIG.    370 — INCAN- 
DESCENT LAMP 


ELECTRICAL   MACHINERY  493 

A  i6  C.P.  lamp  requiring  55  watts  on  a  50-voIt  circuit 
will  take  about  one  ampere ;  on  a  i  lo-volt  circuit  it  will 
take  0.5  ampere ;  on  a  220-volt  circuit  about  0.25  ampere. 
A  lamp  should  not  be  subjecte'd  to  a  voltage  higher  than 
its  rating;  the  filament  is  not  made  for  it  and  will  soon 
give  out. 

The  eificiency  of  a  lamp  is  proportional  to  the  ratio  of 
the  number  of  candles  it  will  produce  to  the  number  of 
watts  it  absorbs.  A  high  efficiency  is  3  watts  per  candle 
power,  and  the  average  efficiency  is  3.5  watts  candle  power. 
High-efficiency  lamps  are  used  where  the  pressure  is  very 
closely  regulated  or  cost  of  power  is  high,  and  low- 
efficiency  lamps  are  used  where  there  is  not  such  close 
regulation  and  power  is  less  expensive. 

664.  Potential  distribution  in  lamp  circuits. — Incandes- 
cent lamps  are  usually  operated  from  low-voltage  con- 
stant-potential circuits.  Where  lamps  are  supplied  with 
current  from  a  street  car  circuit,  which  generally  has  a 
potential  of  500  volts,  they  are  grouped  in  multiple  series ; 
i.e.,  5  loo-volt  lamps  or  10  50-volt  lamps  will  be  connected 
across  the  mains.  In  a  series  circuit  the  drop  on  the  lead 
wires  does  not  interfere  with  the  regulation  of  the  vol- 
tage at  the  terminals,  but  in  a  parallel  circuit  this  drop  is 
an  important  factor  and  requires  that  the  lamps  be  dis- 
tributed and  the  size  of  wire  proportioned  so  that  each 
lamp  receives  about  the  same  voltage.  For  example,  con- 
sider 100  220-volt  lamps  to  be  connected  at  distances 
along  a  pair  of  mains  which  extend  500  feet  from  a  gen- 
erator which  has  a  potential  difference  of  225  volts  at  the 
brushes.  The  lamps  nearest  the  dynamo  will  receive  a 
greater  potential  than  their  rated  capacity  and  will  often 
burn  out,  while  those  farthest  from  the  dynamo  will  not 
receive  potential  equal  to  their  capacity,  hence  will  burn 
dimlv.    In  order  to  overcome  this,  centers  of  distribution 


494 


FARM    MOTORS 


are  laid  out  in  wiring  construction  and  groups  of  lamps 
are  fed  from  these  centers  Fig.  371.  Feed  wires  are  run 
from  the  generators  to  these  centers  and  a  constant  po- 
tential is  kept  in  them  hy  regulation  at  the  generator. 
Sets  of  mains  are  run  from  these  centers,  and  then  sub- 
mains  are  led  off  from  these  mains  to  supply  subcenters 
of  distribution.  To  these  subcenters 
lead  wires  to  the  lamps  are  connected. 
In  this  system  of  wiring  it  does  not 
matter  if  there  is  a  fall  of  potential  ol 
20  per  cent,  between  lamps  and  genera- 
tors, for  the  fall  is  alike  in  all.  For 
example,  a  voltmeter  across  the  brushes 
of  a  generator  shows  225  volts,  one  at 
the  main  center  of  distribution  shows 
only  218  volts,  one  at  the  subcenters 
shows  only  212  volts  and  one  across  the 
terminals  of  the  lamp  shows  only  210 
volts.  But  since  there  has  been  the 
same  number  of  divisions  and  subdivis- 
ions the  P.D.  of  all  of  the  lamps  is  the  same. 

665.    Calculations  for  incandescent  wiring. — To  find  the  size  of 
wire  for  carrying  a  certain  current,  let 
C.  M.  =  circular  mil  area  of  wire, 

K  =  1079  =  resistance  i  mil  foot  of  copper  wire. 
L  =  length  of  circuit  in  feet, 
C  =:  current  in  amperes. 


FIG.    371 — PARALLEL 
CIRCUIT  WIRING 


E  =  volts  drop  on  the  line. 
In  the  formula, 

C.M.  =  ^X^X^ 


10.79  X  LXC 


E  ~  E 

After  obtaining  the  circular  mil  area,  this  must  be  compared  with 
a  wire  table  to  get  the  number  of  wire  to  use. 

Example. — Fifty  55-watt  no- volt  lamps  are  connected  in  parallel 
to  a  center  of  distribution  located  100  feet  from  a  dynamo  which 
generates  112  P.D.  By  measurement  the  potential  at  the  point  of 
distribution  is  no  volts.    What  size  wire  is  required  for  the  feeder? 


ELECTRICAL    MACHINERY  495 

To  find  amperes  to  be  conducted. 

W       55 
C  =  ^p-  =  —  =o  5  per  lamp. 
E       no        '^  ^  ^ 

0-5  X  50  ==  25  amperes  for  all  lamps. 
112— IIOZZI2  volts  drop  on  line. 
CM.  =  ^><^  =  .o.79X(iooX2)X25  ^ 

C  M.  =  circular  mil  area. 
K  =  1079. 

L  =  100  X  2  ~  200  feet. 
C  =  25. 
By  comparison  with  the  wire  table  (670)  the  next  larger  size  than 
26.975  is  B.  &  S.  No.  5- 

Wiring  calculations  for  a  motor. — To  find  the  size  of  wire  to 
transmit  any  given  horse  power  any  distance  when  the  voltage  and 
efficiency  are  known. 

P  yr  _H.P.  X  746XLX  10.79 
'-'''•-  EXeX^M 

E  =  voltage  required  by  motor, 
e  =  drop  on  line. 
H.  P.  =  horse  power  of  motor. 
%  M  =  efficiency  of  motor  in  decimals. 
Example. — What  size  of  wire  is  required  to  conduct  current  to  a 
220-volt  6  H.P.   motor  located   175   feet   from   the   dynamo?     The 
drop  on  the  line  is  to  be  6  volts  and  the  efficiency  of  the  motor  80 
per  cent: 

r  M  _H-P-  X746XLX  10.79 
'-''''■-  EXeX^M 

_  6  X  746  X  175  X  2  X  10.79 

220  X  6  X  .80 
=  15,984  C.  M. 
=  No.  8  B.  &  S. 

To  find  the  current  required  by  a  motor  when  the  horse  power, 
efficiency  and  voltage  are  known. 

H.  P.  X  746 
^-     EX^M    • 
Example. — What  current  is  furnished  to  the  motor  in  the  previous 
problem? 

H.  P.  X  746 


C  = 


Ex^M 
6X  746 


220  X  .80 
=  25.4  amperes. 


Ag6  FARM    MOTORS 

INDUCTION   COILS  AND  TRANSFORMERS 

666.  Self-induction. — Self-induction  is  defined  as  the 
cutting  of  a  wire  by  the  lines  of  force  flowing  through 
the  wire.  When  a  current  begins  to  flow  through  a  wire 
magnetic  whirls  spring  outward  from  the  wire  and  cut  it. 
This  cutting  of  the  wire  with  only  its  own  magnetic  lines 
of  force  induces  an  E.M.F.  for  an  instant.  But  the 
E.M.F.  which  it  does  induce  has  an  opposite  direction  to 
the  E.M.F.  which  causes  the  current  to  flow.  Hence  the 
E.M.F.  will  be  retarded  for  an  instant  by  its  own  induced 
E.M.F.  and  will  not  flow  until  this  is  overcome.  When  the 
current  flowing  through  the  wire  is  stopped  the  lines  of 
force  again  cut  the  wire  but  in  an  opposite  direction, 
hence  this  time  they  tend  to  retard  the  cessation  of  flow 
of  the  current.  The  effects  of  self-induction  are 
rarely  noticeable  in  a  straight  wire,  but  when  the  wire  is 
wound  into  coils  in  the  form  of  a  helix  the  magnetic 
field  of  every  turn  cuts  many  adjacent  turns  and  the 
E.M.F.  is  greatly  increased,  being  proportional  to  the 
current,  the  number  of  turns  and  the  magnetic  lines 
through  the  coil.  If  an  iron  core  is  placed  within  the 
coil  the  effects  of  self-induction  are  very  much  greater. 
By  snapping  the  wires  from  a  battery  after  passing 
through  such  a  coil  as  described  above  a  brilliant  spark 
will  be  produced.  This  is  the  simple  coil  (Fig.  372)  used 
in  make-and-break  ignition  on  gasoline  engines. 

667.  Induction  coil. — If  two  coils  entirely  separate 
from  each  other  be  wound  around  an  iron  core  and  con- 
nected up  as  in  Fig.  373  every  time  the  current  is  started 
in  coil  a  there  will  be  a  deflection  of  the  galvanometer 
needle  in  h.  If  the  current  is  broken  in  a  the  needle  h 
will  again  be  deflected,  but  in  an  opposite  direction. 
From  this  it  is  seen  that  the  magnetic  lines  of  force  which 
surround  the  wire  in  coil  a  induce  a  current  in  the  coil  b* 


ELECTRICAL   MACHINERY 


497 


This  IS  the  principle  of  the  induction  coil,  a  diagram  of 
the  connections  being  shown  in  Fig.  374.  The  circuit 
leading  from  the  batteries  to  the  inside  of  the  coil  is 
known  as  the  primary  and  the  circuit  wound  on  the  out- 


^^ 


^^ 


HiH 


FIG.    2>T2- 


FIG.  Z^Z 


side  of  this  is  known  as  the  secondary.  The  primary  in- 
duces the  current  in  the  secondary,  and  if  the  secondary 
circuit  has  more  turns  of  wire  than  the  primary  it  will 
have  a  correspondingly  greater  E.M.F.,  in  other  words, 
the  difference  in  E.M.F.  of  the  two  circuits  varies  directly 
with  the  difference  in  the  number  of  turns  in  the  wire 
of  the  two.  Since  the  induced  E.M.F.  is  set  up  only 
as  the  current  is  made  or  broken,  an  automatic  device  A 

is  connected  into  the  pri- 
mary, whose  action  is  iden- 
tical with  the  circuit  break- 
er of  an  electric  bell.  In 
induction  coils  this,  how- 
ever, is  generally  known  as 
a  buzzer. 

The  induction  coil  is 
used  with  jump-spark  igni- 
tion, on  gasoline  engines. 
For  this  work  the  spark 
requires  such  a  high 
E.M.F.  that  the  primary 
consists  of  only  a  few  turns  of  coarse  wire,  while  the  sec- 
ondary consists  of  several  thousand  turns  of  fine  wire. 


^{ 


FIG.  374 — PRINCIPLE  OF  THE  INDUC- 
TION COIL 


498 


FARM    MOTORS 


668.  Transformers. — Where  alternating  currents  are 
used  for  electric  lighting,  to  make  the  cost  of  transmission 
a  minimum  a  voltage  of  i,ioo  to  2,200  or  even  higher  is 
used ;  this  is  far  too  high  to  be  taken  into  houses  and  so  a 
transformer  is  connected  into  the  circuit.  A  transformer 
is  identical  with  the  induction  coil  with  the  automatic 
circuit  breaker  removed.  A  transformer,  however,  usually 
decreases  the  E.M.F.  instead  of  increasing  it.  This  is 
done  by  having  the  primary  enter  the  coil  on  a  large  num- 
ber of  turns  and  the  secondary  pass  off  on  a  few  turns. 
Since  the  current  is  alternating  in  action,  it  takes  the 
place  of  a  circuit  breaker. 

669.  Copper  wire  table. 


Gauge, 

A.  W.  G. 

B.  &S. 

Diameter, 
Inches 

Area, 

Circular 

Mils 

Weight 
Pounds  per 
i,cxx)Feet 

Length, 

Feet 

per  Pound 

Ohms 
Resistance 
per  looo  Feet 

0 

0.3249 

105,500 

319.5 

3.130 

0.09960 

I 
2 

3 
4 

0.2893 
0.2576 
0.2294 
0.2043 

83,690 
66,370 
52,630 
41,740 

253.3 
200.9 

159-3 
126.4 

3.947 
4.977 
6.276 

7.914 

0.1256 
0.1584 
0.1997 
0.2518 

5 
6 

7 

8 

O.1819 
0.1620 

0.1443 
0.1285 

33»ioo 
26,250 
20,820 
16,510 

100.2 
79.46 
63.02 
49.98 

9.980 
12.58 
15.87 
20.01 

0.3176 
0.4004 
0   5048 
0.6367 

9 
10 
II 
12 

O.II44 
O.IOI9 
0.09074 
0.08081 

13,090 

10,380 

8,234 

6,530 

39.63 
31.43 
24.93 
19.77 

25.23 
31.82 
40.12 
50.59 

0.8028 
1. 012 
1.276 
1. 610 

13 
14 
15 
16 

0.07196 
0 . 06408 
0.05707 
0.05082 

5.178 
4,107 
3.257 
2,583 

15.68 
12.43 

9.858 
7.818 

63.79 
80.44 
IOI.4 
127.9 

2.029 

2.559 
3.227 
4.070 

CHAPTER  XXIII 


THE  FARM  SHOP 


670.  Necessity. — There  is  no  farm  so  small  but  a  farm 
shop  would  be  of  value.  For  small  farms  there  should  not 
be  many  tools,  but  there  is  seldom  a  year  when  a  small 
investment  in  a  bench  with  a  vise  and  a  few  tools  would 
not  return  to  the  user  a  good  dividend.  It  is  not  alone 
the  amount  of  money  which  can  be  saved  by  doing  a 
large  per  cent  of  one's  own  repairing,  but  it  is  the  time 
saved  in  emergencies. 

Often  breakages  occur  with  farm  machinery  which,  if 
the  tools  are  at  hand,  may  be  repaired  in  much  less  time 
than  is  required  to  take  the  broken  parts  to  a  repair  shop 
where  the  job  must  wait  its  turn  with  others  equally 
urgent.  There  are  times  when  farm  work  is  very  press- 
ing and  a  delay  of  a  few  hours  means  a  loss  of  many  dol- 
lars in  wasted  crops. 

Not  only  is  there  a  loss  by  not  having  a  shop  for  urgent 
repairs,  but  there  are  rainy  and  disagreeable  days,  when 
men  do  not  relish  working  outside,  that  can  very  profit- 
ably be  put  in  working  in  the  shop. 

671.  Use. — The  idea  is  prevalent  that  only  skilled  me- 
chanics can  do  work  in  a  shop.  Of  course  this  is  true  in 
a  great  many  instances  where  the  work  is  difficult,  but 
there  are  more  times  when  the  work  is  such  that  a  man 
with  only  ordinary  mechanical  ability  can  do  it.  The 
farmer  should  not  attempt  to  point  plows,  weld  mowing 
machine  pitmans  and  do  such  work  until  he  has 
achieved  skill.  However,  he  can  tighten  horseshoes,  re- 
pair castings,  etc.,  as  well  as  do  carpentry  work. 


500 


FARM    MOTORS 


672.  Location. — The  location  of  the  shop  depends 
greatly  upon  circumstances  and  taste.  If  the  shop  is 
equipped  with  only  a  work  bench  and  the  tools  which  go 
with  it,  it  can  be  built  in  the  barn,  or  a  part  of  the  ma- 
chine shed  be  used.  In  fact  a  suitable  place  can  be  ar- 
ranged almost  anywhere.  To  locate  a  shop  with  a  forge 
in  the  equipment  is  a  little  more  trouble.  It  should  be 
a  separate  building  and  far  enough  away  from  the  other 
buildings  so  that  in  case  it  should  catch  fire  the  other 
buildings  could  be  saved.     Should  the  owner  of  a  farm 

shop  be  fortunate  enough  to 
possess  a  gasoline  engine  or 
some  similar  source  of 
power,  the  engine  can  very 
handily  be  placed  in  a  room 
adjoining  the  shop  and  a 
shaft  run  one  way  into  the 
shop  and  another  way  into 
the  granary  where  the 
sheller  and  grinder  may  be 
located. 

673.  Construction. — That  part  of  the  shop  floor  about 
the  forge  and  anvil  should  be  of  earth  or  concrete,  and 
if  concrete  be  used  in  this  part  it  might  as  well  be  ex- 
tended over  all  the  floor  space.  The  material  and  design 
of  the  outside  of  the  shop  should  conform  to  the  style 
of  the  other  buildings  about  the  place. 

674.  Size. — The  size  of  the  shop  should  conform  to  the 
size  of  the  farm  and  a  man's  ability  as  a  mechanic.  A 
small  farm  does  not  require  as  well  equipped  a  shop  as  a 
large  one.  A  farm  close  to  town  does  not  require 
as  large  a  shop  as  one  several  miles  in  the  country.  A 
man  who  is  inclined  to  handle  tools  more  or  less  will 
make  very  much  more  use  of  a  shop  than  a  man  who  will 


FIG.   375— ARRANGEMENT  OF  A 
SMALL   SHOP 


THE  FARM  SHOP 


501 


Outside  D'lrri&nsioris 
l6-0</6-0 


RoKes.  forKs  and  other  hand  tools  hang  on  rhig  wall 


FIG.  376 — ARRANGEMENT  OF  A  LARGE   SHOP 

use  it  only  when  dire  necessity  requires,  consequently  the 
man  who  uses  the  shop  frequently  needs  a  larger  one 
than  the  man  who  very  seldom  enters  it.  A  shop  with  a 
floor  space  of  8  X  10  is  large  enough  for  a  bench  with  a 
few  hand  tools  and  a  small  portable  forge. 

If  one  desires  to  have  his  shop  large  enough  so  that 
a  wagon  can  be  run  in  for  repairs  it  should  be  about 
16  X  16  feet.  It  might  seem  that  this  would  be  a  waste 
of  space,  but  that  part  of  the  shop  where  the  wagons 
stand  for  repairs  can  be  used  for  a  wagon  shed  all  the 
rest  of  the  time» 


502  FARM    MOTORS 

675.  Equipment. — The  following  is  a  list  of  tools  sug- 
gested for  a  iarm  of  160  to  320  acres.  The  cost  of  the 
wood  tools  is  from  $15  to  $20,  according  to  grade,  and  the 
cost  of  the  forge  tools  from  $25  to  $35.  The  anvil  re- 
ferred to  in  this  list  is  cast  iron  with  steel  face;  if  a 
wrought-iron  anvil  with  a  steel  face  be  substituted  for 
it  an  addition  of  about  5  cents  for  each  pound  weight 
should  be  added. 


LIST 


Wood  Tools 


I  rip  saw,  5-point. 

I  panel  saw,   lo-point. 

I  12-inch  compass  saw. 

I  steel  square. 

I  8-inch  sliding  tee  bevel. 

I  set  bits. 

I  each  y^-,  yi-,  y^-,  and  i-inch  socket  firmer  chisels. 

I  20-inch  fore  plane. 

I  8-inch  smooth  plane. 

I  rachet  brace,  lo-inch  sweep. 

I  marking  gauge. 

I  8-inch  screw  driver. 

I  f^-inch  socket  firmer  gouge. 

I  2  X  I  X  8-inch  oil  stone. 

I  8-inch  try  square. 

I  i/^  X  15-inch  bench  screw. 

I  pocket  level. 

I  drawing  knife. 

I  expansive  bit. 

14X6  lignum-vitae  mallet. 

I  pair  12-inch  carpenter's  pincers. 

Forge  Tools 

I  forge. 

I  pair  20-inch  straight-lipped  blacksmith  tongs. 

I  80-pound  cast-iron  anvil  with  steel  face. 

I  1%-pound  ball  pein  hammer. 

I  bardie  to  fit  anvil. 

I  12-pound  steel  sledge  with  handle. 

I  55-pound  solid  box  vise. 

I  Champion  post  drill. 

I  set  dies  and  taps. 


LITERATURE   WHICH  HAS  BEEN  CONSULTED  IN  THE 

PREPARATION  OF  "FARM  MACHINERY  AND 

FARM  MOTORS" 

The  Influence  of  Farm  Machinery  on  Production  and  Labor.  By 
N.  W.  Quaintance.  1904.  Publication  of  the  American  Eco- 
nomic Association,  Vol.  V.,  No.  4. 

Theoretical  Mechanics.    By  L.  M.  Hoskins.     1900.     Stanford. 

Mechanics  of  Engineering.  By  I.  P.  Church.  John  Wiley  &  Sons, 
New  York. 

General  Physics.  By  C.  S.  Hastings  and  F.  E.  Beach.  1900.  Ginn 
&  Company,  Boston. 

Text  Book  of  the  Mechanics  of  Materials.    By  Mansfield  Merriman. 

1901.  John  Wiley  &  Sons,  New  York. 

The  Materials  of  Construction.  By  J.  B.  Johnson.  1903.  John 
Wiley  &  Sons,  New  York. 

Experimental  Engineering.  By  R.  C.  Carpenter.  1902.  John  Wiley 
&  Sons,  New  York. 

The  Book  of  Farm  Implements  and  Machines.  By  James  Slight 
and  R.  Scott  Burn.  1858.  William  Blackwood  &  Sons,  Edin- 
burgh. 

Bulletin  No.  103,  Evolution  of  Reaping  Machines.    By  M.  F.  Miller. 

1902.  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 

Physics  of  Agriculture,  Chapters  XL,  XVI.,  XX.,  XXIL  and  XXIII. 

By  F.  H.  King.     1901.     Madison. 
Farm  Implements  and  Farm  Machinery.     By  J.  J.  Thomas.     1869. 

Orange  Jiidd  Co.,  New  York. 
Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  Vol.  I.,  pp.  203-231,  387-398. 

1907.     Macmillan  Co.,  New  York. 
Farm  Engineering.  By  John  Scott.     1885.     Crosby  Lockwood  &  Co., 

London. 
The  Fertility  of  the  Land.    By  I.  P.  Roberts.    1904.    The  Macmillan 

Co.,  New  York. 
Kent's    Mechanical    Engineers'    Pocket-Book.      By    William    Kent. 

1906.     John  Wiley  &  Sons,  New  York. 
Architects'  and  Builders'   Pocket-Book.     By   F.   E.   Kidder.     1905. 

John  Wiley  &  Sons,  New  York. 
Twelfth  Census  of  the  United  States. 

Science  of  Threshing.     By  G.  F.  Conner.     The  Thresherman's  Re- 
view, St.  Joseph,  Michigan. 
Bulletin   No.   6,    Trial   of    Sleds   and   Tillage   Tools,    and    Bulletin 

No.  7,  Draft  of  Mowing  Machines.     By  J.  W.  Sanborn.     Utah 

Experiment  Station. 
Bulletin  No.  39,  Influence  of  Width  of  Tire  on  Draft  of  Wagons. 

By  H.  J.  Waters.    1897.    Bulletin  No.  52,  Influence  of  Height  of 

Wheel  on  the  Draft  of  Farm  Wagons.     By  T.  I.  Mairs.     1901. 

Missouri  Experiment  Station. 
Bulletin  No.  68,  One  Year's  Work  Done  by  a  16-Foot  Geared  Wind- 


504  FARM    MOTORS 

mill,  and  Bulletin  No.  82,  Experiments  in  Grinding  with  Small 

Steel  Feed  Mills.     By  F.  H.  King.     1898  and  1900.     Wisconsin 

Experiment  Station. 
Mechanics  of  Pumping  Machinery.    By  Julius  Weisbach  and  Gustav 

Herrmann.     1897.     Macmillan  Co.,  New  York. 
Science  of  Successful  Threshing.    By  Dingee  and  MacGregor.    1907. 

J.  I.  Case  Threshing  Machine  Co.,  Racine,  Wis. 
The  Animal  as  a  Machine  and  Prime  Mover.     By  R.  H.  Thurston. 

1894.     John  Wiley  &  Sons,  New  York. 
Haulage  by  Horses.    By  Thomas  H.  Brigg.     1893.     Transactions  of 

the    American    Society    of    Mechanical    Engineers,    Vol.    XIV. 
The  Windmill  as  a  Prime  Mover.    By  Alfred  R.  Wolff.    1900.    John 

Wiley  &  Sons. 
Bulletin  No.  59,  The  Homemade  Windmills  of  Nebraska.    By  E.  H. 

Barbour,  Nebraska  Experiment  Station. 
Steam  Boilers.     By  C.  H.  Peabody  and  E.  F.  Miller.     1902.     John 

Wiley  &  Sons. 
Modern  Steam  Engineering.     By  Gardner  D.  Hiscox.     1907.     The 

Norman  W.  Henley  Publishing  Co.,  New  York. 
The  Steam  Boiler.     By  Stephen  Roper,  1897.     David  McKay,  Pub- 
lisher,  Philadelphia. 
The  Traction  Engine  Catechism.     Compiled  by  the  Thresherman's 

Review.     1906.     St.  Joseph,  Mich, 
Instructions  for  Traction  and   Stationary  Engineers.     By  William 

Boss.     1906.     The  Author,  St.  Anthony  Park,  Minn. 
The  Traction  Engine.     By  J.  H.  Maggard.     1902.     David  McKay, 

Publisher,  Philadelphia. 
Rough  and  Tumble  Engineering.     By  J.  H.  Maggard,  Iowa  City. 
Farm  Engines  and  How  to  Run  Them.    By  J.  H.  Stephenson.  1903. 

Frederick  J.  Drake  &  Co.,  Chicago. 
The  Gas  and  Oil  Engine.     By  Dugald  Clerk.     1899.     John  Wiley 

&  Sons,  New  York. 
The  Gas  Engine.    By  F.  R.  Hutton.    John  Wiley  &  Sons,  New  York. 
The  Practical  Gas  and  Gasoline  Engineer.     By  E.  W.  Longanecker. 

1903.     The  Acme,   Publisher,  Chicago. 
Bulletin  No.  93,  Comparative  Values  of  Alcohol  and  Gasoline  for 

Light  and  Power.     By  J.  B.  Davidson  and  M.  L.  King.     1907. 

Iowa  Experiment  Station. 
Bulletin   No.    191,   Tests  of   Internal    Combustion   Engines   on   Al- 
cohol Fuel.    By  C.  E.  Lucke  and  S.  M.  Woodward.    1907.    U.  S. 

Department  of  Agriculture. 
Dynamo  Electric  Machinery.     By  Samuel  Sheldon.     1902.     D.  Van 

Nostrand  Co.,  New  York. 
Lessons  in  Practical  Electricity.     By  C.  Walton  Swoope.     Fourth 

Edition.     D.  Van  Nostrand  Co.,  New  York. 
First  Course  in  Physics.    By  R.  A.  Millikan  and  H.  G.  Gale.     Ginn 

&  Co.,  New  York. 
Elementary   Lessons   in    Electricity   and   Magnetism.     By   Silvanus 

Thompson.     The  Macmillan  Co.,  New  York. 
Steam   Engine  Theory  and   Practice.     By   William   Ripper.      1899. 

Longmans,  Green  &  Co.,  New  York. 


INDEX 


PAGE 

Absorption  dynamometers i8 

Action  of  valves ; 430 

Adjusting  the  walking  plow 75 

sulky    plow 75 

Advantage,  giving  one  horse  the.      14 
of    the    gasoline     engine    as    a 

farm  motor 432 

Agricultural      engineering — defini- 
tion         9 

Air  cooled,  the 420 

Air  for  combustion 347 

Alcohol   , 434-435 

Alfalfa    harrow 85 

Alfalfa  mills 237 

Alternator,    magneto 478 

multipolar   478 

Ammeter   465 

Amperes    27 

Anchor  posts 313 

Angle  of  advance ^72 

Angularity  of  connecting  rod....    381 

Animal  as  a  motor,  the 281 

Animals  other  than  horse  or  mule 

used   for  power 286 

Anthracite   coal 347 

Arc,  electric 490 

Armature   476-483 

insulation  of 485 

Arrester,    spark 339 

Artificial  magnets 460 

Attaching  indicator  to   engines.    .    383 
Attachments,  threshing  machine..    214 

self  feed  and  band  cutter 214 

stackers    215 

weighers    216 

wind  stackers  or  blowers 215 

Attraction  and  repulsion,   laws  of 

electrical    462 

Automatic  cut-off  governor 389 

Bag  in  a  boiler 360 

Balanced   valve 373 

Baling  presses 187 

;  box  presses 1 88 

development    187 

horse  power   presses '88 

power  presses 189 

Banking  the  fire. 355  . 

Bar  share 56 

Barn  tools 181 

Base 407 

Batteries    419 

connection 419 

Battle-ax  mills 299 

Bean  and  pea  threshers 218 

BearingB  .■ , , .  .40,  398 


PACE 

Bearing  surface  at  wing  of  share.     70 

Bell,   electric 473 

Belting 28 

canvas 30 

care  of  leather 29 

dressing 29 

lacing  of 30 

leather 29 

link 31 

Best  conditions  for  work 293 

Bevel  gears 37 

Binders 143 

draft   of 153 

Bituminous  or  soft  coals 348 

Blister 360 

Blow-off  pipe 338 

Blower  and  exhaust  nozzle 328 

Blue  heat 342 

Boilers,  bag  in 360 

capacity    339 

classification   318 

cleaning   358 

compounds   359 

direct  flue 329 

externally   fired 319 

horse  power 340 

internally  fired 320 

laying  up 360 

locomotive  type 321 

open  bottom  type 324 

principle    317 

return   flue 324 

round  bottom  type 324 

steam    317 

strength  of 342 

vertical 318 

Boiler  shell,  strength  of 344 

Boiling  point 365 

Rolts,    stay 343 

Bottom,  plow 59 

types  of 63 

Boxes,  heating  of ai 

enclosed  wheel 65 

Bridges    455 

British  thermal  unit 26 

Brushes 477 

Buggies  and  carriages 25a 

selection    25a 

Burners,  wood  and  cob 326 

straw   328 

Burr 46 

Cable  transmission 34 

Calculations  for  incandescent  wir- 
ing    494 

Canvas  belting 30 


5o6 


INDEX 


PAGE 

Capacity    286 

boiler 339 

dynamos 485 

of  the  horse 292 

Carburetion 430 

Carburetors 414 

constant   level 415 

float  feed 416 

Care  of  gasoline  engines 427 

Cassady,  W.  R 56 

Cast  iron 44,  343 

Cells 470 

dry    47 1 

Center,  dead 374 

Centrifugal   pumps 269 

Changes,  physical  and  mental..,.        3 

Chilled  iron 44 

plow   65 

Classification  of  dynamos 483 

of  steam  engines 364 

of  windmills 303 

Cleaning  the  fire 355 

the  boiler 358 

the  flues 359 

Clover   hullers 219 

Clutch   448 

Coal,  bituminous  or  soft 348 

anthracite 347 

semi-anthracite   348 

Coefficient  of  friction 39 

Coils,  magnetic  properties  of 472 

induction   496 

Columns,  water 334 

Combustion 348 

air  for. . . ; 349 

heat  of 349 

volume  of  air  for 350 

Commercial  rating  of  dynamos...   486 

incandescent   lamps 492 

steam   engines 394 

Commutators 479 

principle   of 479 

Comparative  resistance 467 

Comparison  of  the  drum  and  ring 

armature 480 

motor  with  dynamo 487 

Compensating  gears 451 

Compound,   boiler 359 

engine    393 

wound  dynamos 483 

Compression   428 

Connecting  rod 410 

angularity  of 381 

Connections,  series 469 

parallel 469 

Constant  level  carburetors 415 

Construction   407 

Cooling  of  gasoline  engines 420 

Copper    wire    table 498 

Corn   crushers 238 

Corn  drills. 132 

Corn  harvesting  machinery 155 

sled    harvesters 157 

types  of 158 

Corn  machinery 221 

feed  and  ensilage  cutters,  ,,,,,921 


PAGE 

Corn  machinery,  development. . . .  221 

huskers  and  shredders 224 

Corn   shellers 227 

development    227 

types  of  modern 227 

Corn  planters 120 

calibration  of 131 

development    120 

development  of  check  rower...    120 

draft  of 131 

hand  planters 121 

the  modern  planter 122 

Corrosion 357 

Cost  of  production 5 

Coulter 57 

Cracks   360 

Crank  shaft 410 

Cultivators    91 

classification 91 

development 91 

features  of,  with  suggestions  in 

regard  to  selection 92 

listed  corn 99 

one-horse 91 

seats 93 

hammock 93 

straddle 93 

single  and  double  shovel 91 

wheels    96 

pivotal 97 

boxes 96 

Current   electricity 464 

Currents   induced   in  a   coil  by  a 

magnet 474 

rotating  coil 475 

Cylinder    408 

head    408 

Davenport,  F.   S 56 

Dead  center ' 374 

locating    37S 

Deere,  John 55 

Density     of    charge     varies     with 

form  of  surface 462 

Development,  muscular..... 285 

of  the  present-day  windmill....   298 

Die  for  cutting  threads 16 

Differential  pulley 16 

Direct  flue  boilers 329 

current  dynamo 479 

ring   armature 480 

drum  armature 480 

comparison    480 

Direct-reading  dynamometer 20 

Direction  of  trace 289 

Disk  harrows 83 

cutaway 84 

•     orchard 85 

plow   cut 87 

tongueless 87 

Disk  plow 66 

Division  of  work 294 

Double-cylinder  engine 391 

Double-eccentric  reverse 378 

Double-riveted   lap  joint 346 

Double-ported  valves 373 


INDEX 


507 


PAGE 

Draft  of  plows 73 

Draft,  line  of   least 291 

Drawing  the  fire 356 

Drills   no 

classification  of no 

construction    118 

disk 112 

draft  of 118 

the  hoe no 

the  shoe 1 1 1 

Drum      armature       direct-current 

dynamos 480 

Dry  cells 47 1 

Dynamometers 18 

absorption 18 

direct-reading 20 

Giddings 23 

self-recording 20 

traction 19 

transmission 19 

Dynamos    47^ 

armature 477 

brushes 477 

capacity   of 485 

classification  of 483 

commercial   rating 486 

compound-wound 483 

direct-current 479 

efficiency  of 486 

multipolar   alternator 478 

repairing  a.-.  ••;.., 487 

self -exciting,  principle  of.  .... .   481 

series  . . . .  ^ 482 

shunt 482 

simple  alternating-current 476 

Early  forms 361 

Early  history 298 

Eccentric 372 

Economic  considerations  of  wind- 
mills    314 

Effect  of  increase  of  speed 294 

Effect  of   length  of  working  day.   294 

Effectual   tension  on  belt 28 

Efficiency  of  dynamos 486 

of  a  lamp . •. 493 

of  a  machine 12 

thermal    26 

of  a  wind  wheel 307 

Ejector,    siphon   or 330 

Electric  bell 473 

Electric  current,  heating  effect  of  471 

Electrical   energy 26 

power   466 

transmission 42 

Electricity 462 

current 464 

static    462 

Electromagnet 472 

Electromagnetic    induction 472 

Electromotive    force 466 

F,nd-gate    seeder 105 

Energy. 28 1 

kinetic 282 

law  of  transformation  of 282 

potential 283 

sources  of 281 


PACK 

Engines,  internal  combustion 401 

gasoline   traction 401 

mounting 446 

steam 361 

traction    436 

Erecting   mills 313 

Eveners 14 

two-horse    13 

Exhaust   430 

nozzle  and  blower 338 

Expansion  of  steam 367 

work  done   during 368 

Externally   fired  boilers 319 

Factor  of  safety. 49 

Factor   upon    which    the   value   of 

induced  E.M.F".  depends...   475 
Farm   machinery,    value   and  care 

of 27s 

Farm  shop,  construction 500 

equipment 575 

location 500 

necessity 499 

size 500 

use 499 

Feed  and  silage  cutters 221 

development   221 

Feed  mills 234 

development 234 

power  mills 235 

alfalfa   mills 237 

capacity  of  feed  mills 237 

corn   crushers 238 

sacking  elevators 236 

the  selection  of  a 236 

Feed  pipe 353 

Feed   pumps 452 

Feed  water  heaters 334 

forks 18 

hay   stackers. 179 

sweep  rakes 178 

Fire,  banking  the 355 

drawing  the 356 

Firing 354 

with  soft  coal 354 

Float-feed    carburetors 416 

IHues,    the 351 

cleaning  the 359 

Flywheels 410 

Foaming 356 

Force 10 

electromotive    466 

magnetic   lines  of 460 

Force   pumps 265 

double  pipe  or  underground 265 

Forks 181 

Forms  of  motors 292 

Four-cycle  engines 403 

strokes  of 403 

Frame  mounting 445 

Friction  mounting 38 

coefficient  of 39 

rolling 39 

Erog 57 

1^  uels    347 

value  of 348 

Furley,  M 56 


5o8 


INDEX 


PAGE 

Fi«e 471 

Fusible  plug 335.  336,  337 

Future  of  the  gasoline  engii>e.  .  .  .    434 

Gasoline   engines,  care..  .7? 427 

construction 407 

cooling 420 

four-cycle 402 

future   of 434 

indicator  diagram 423 

losses  in 424 

lubrication    427 

parts 403 

setting 431 

strokes  of 403 

testing 426 

troubles 428 

action  of  valves 430 

carburetion 430 

compression 428 

ignition 429 

two-cycle 404 

types  of 402 

wiring 4^9 

Gauge,  steam 335,  336,  337,   352 

Gearing. 37.  307 

transmission 449 

Gears,  reversing 378 

compensating 451 

Generation  of  steam 365 

Giddings's  dynamometer 23 

Glass,  water 353 

Goldswait,   E 56 

Governors 385 

automatic  cut-off 389 

Corliss 391 

hit-or-miss  type 411 

racing 388 

throttling 386,  411 

Grate  surface,  power  by 341 

Gray   iron 44 

Grip 288 

Guiding  an  engine 454 

Gutters 455 

Hammer   test 346 

Handholcs 35i 

Handling  a  boiler 351 

Hand  methods  change  to  modern 

methods I 

Hand  planters 121 

Hand   seeder 104 

Handy  wagons.. 251 

Harrows,    classification 82 

curved  knife  tooth 78 

development 79 

disk 83 

orchard   disk 85 

smoothing 78 

spading 84 

spring  tooth 81 

Harrow   cart 82 

Harvesting  machinery 136 

combined  harvester  and  thresher  154 

development 138,    139 

modern  harvester  or  binder.  ...    143 

draft  of  binders i53 

Haying  machinery i6a 


PAGE 

Haying  machinery,  baling  presses  187 

box    presses. 188 

development 187 

horse-power  presses 188 

power   presses 189 

barn  tools 181 

development.  .  • 181 

field  stacking,  machines  for....  178 

forks 181 

hay  stackers 179 

sweep  rakes 178 

hay  loader 176 

development 176 

endless    apron 177 

fork    loader 177 

the   mower 162 

rakes 171 

hay  tedders 174 

Heat 26 

of   combustion 349 

latent 366 

of  the  liquid 366 

Heaters,  feed  water 334 

Heating  effect  of  an  electric  cur- 
rent   471 

Heating  of  boxes 41 

Heating  surface,  power   by 341 

Heel   plate 70 

Height  and  length 289 

Hillside    plow 65 

Hit-or-miss  governors 411 

Hock,   width  of 291 

Hoe  drill .•••••. ^'O 

Home-made   windmills 299 

battle-ax  windmills 299 

Holland   mills 299 

Jumbos 299 

merry-go-rounds 299 

mock  turbines 299 

reconstructed  turbines 299 

Hooking  up  an  engine 378 

Horse,   the 287 

at  work 291 

capacity  of 292 

grip 288 

height 289 

length 289 

maximum  power  of 293 

resistance  he  can  overcome....  288 

weight 288 

Horse  power 466 

brake 25 

definition    of 11 

indicated 25,  425 

of  belting 28 

of  shafting. 38 

of  steam  engines 394 

Horse   power  presses 188 

Howard,  P.   P 52 

Hot  tube   ignitor 417 

How  the  wind  may  be  utilized...  315 

Huskers  and  shredders 224 

Hydraulic  test ' 346 

Hysteresis 485 

Ignition 429 

Ignitors 417 


INDEX 


509 


PAGE 

Ignitors,  contact  spark 417 

jump  spark 418 

Incandescent  lamps 492 

Inclined  plane 15 

Increase   in   production 2 

Increase    in    wages 3 

Incrustation 357 

Indicated  horse  power 425 

Indicator,  steam  and  gas  engine..      24 

cards 25 

Indicator   diagram 382,  423 

from   a    throttling-governed    en- 
gine    388 

reading  an 384 

to  read  for  pressures 385 

Induction    coil 496 

Injector,  the 332 

Inside  lap 369 

Insulation  of  an  armature 458 

Internal   combustion  engines 401 

early   development 401 

later  development 402 

Internally  fired  boilers 320 

Iron,   cast 44 

chilled , 44 

gray 44 

malleable 44 

white 44 

ITelTerson,  Thomas 53 
Jointer 64 
Joints,  riveted 344 
oule 26 
umbos 299 
ump-spark  ignitors 417 
lilowatt ; 466 

Labor   of  women 4 

Lamps,   incandescent 492 

commercial  rating  of 492 

Land  roller 87 

Landside 56 

Lane,  John 55 

Lap  of  valve 369 

inside    lap 369 

object  of  lap 370 

outside  lap 369 

Lap  joint,  double-riveted 346 

single-riveted 344 

Latent  heat 365,  366 

Law    of    electrical    attraction    and 

repulsion 462 

of  magnets 461 

of  mechanics 12 

Ohm's 467 

of  resistance. . 466 

of  transformation  of  energy...    281 

Laying  up  a  boiler 360 

Lead 370 

reasons    for 370 

Leaks 396 

Length  of  belts 30 

Leveling  the  water  column 353 

Lever 12 

Lift  pumps 263 

Lightning  and   lightning  rods....   463 

Line  of  least  draft 290 

Link  belting 33 


PAGE 

Link  motion  reverse 378 

Listers 13a 

loose  ground 133 

Locating  dead  center 375 

Locomotive   type 321 

Loss  from  improper  amount  of  air  350 
Losses  in  a  steam  engine  cylinder  368 

in  a   gasoline  engine 424 

of   motors 487 

Low   water 357 

Lubricant,  choice  of 40 

Lubrication 40,  399,  427 

Lubricators 399 

Machine,  definition  of 11 

Magnetic  lines  of  force 460 

direction    of 460 

Magnetic    materials 461 

Magnetic  properties  of  coils 472 

Magneto  alternator 478 

Magnets,  artificial 460 

laws  of 461 

natural 460 

Malleable  link  belting 33 

iron 44 

Manholes 351 

Manure  spreaders 191 

development 192 

drilling  attachment 202 

sizes 202 

the  modern 1 94 

Materials. 43 

magnetic 461 

strength  of 46 

transverse  strength  of 46 

used 342 

Maximum  bending  moment 46 

Maximum  power  of  the  horse....   293 

Mean   effective  pressure 25 

Mechanical  efficiency 25 

Mechanics,  definition  of 10 

law  of 12 

Merry-go-rounds 301 

Mills,   power 316 

Mock  turbine 299 

Modern    planter 122 

Modulus  of  rupture 47 

Moldboard. 56 

Moore,  Gilpin 56 

Motors 281 

the  animal    as   a 284 

comparison  with  a  dynamo 487 

counter  electromotive  force  of.   489 

forms  of 282 

losses  of 489 

operating 489 

principle   of 487 

wire  calculations  for 49s 

Mounting 437 

boiler 437 

frame 445 

rear 440 

side 437 

under 44^ 

engine 440 

Moving  an  engine 453 

bridges 455 


510 


INDEX 


PAGE 

Moving  an  engine,  guiding 454 

gutters 455 

mud  hoies 454 

reversing 455 

Mowers 162 

knife    grinder 170 

modern 1 64 

mower  frame 165 

one-horse 165 

troubles   with 1 69 

two-horse 165 

wheels 166 

windrowing  attachment 170 

Mudholes 454 

Multipolar    alternator 478 

Muscles,   strength   of 286 

Muscular   development 284 

Natural    magnets 460 

Newbold,    Charles 54 

Newcomen's    engine 361 

Newton,  Robert S6 

Nut 16 

Object  of  lap 370 

Ohm 467 

Ohm's  law 467 

Oil 348 

Oil-cooling  system 423 

On  the   road 456 

Open-bottom  type,  the 324 

Open-jacket    cooling 423 

Operating   motors 489 

Orchard  disk  harrow 85 

Outside   lap 369 

Packing 397 

Parallel  connections 469 

I'arallelogram  of  forces 10 

Parlin,    William 35 

Parts  of  a  steam  engine 361 

Physical  and  mental  changes 3 

Pipe,  blow-off 338 

Piston 409 

rings 409 

Pitch  of  screw 16 

Plane,  inclined 15 

Planirneter,  the 23 

Planker 87 

Planter  wheels 129 

Plow 52 

bottom 59 

chilled 65 

disk 66 

the  development  of 52 

draft  of 72 

gang 58 

hillside 65 

the  modern  sulky 58 

the  modern  walking 56 

the   Roman  plow 52 

scouring   of 71 

set   of  sulky 70 

set  of  walking 69 

steam 67 

the   steel  plow     54 

subsoil 66 

types  of  sulky  plows 60 

Plow-cut  disk  harrow 87 


PAGE 

Plug,    fusible 335,  336,   337 

Polarization 470 

Poles 460 

Poor   regulation  of  voltage 486 

Pop  valve,  safety  or 335,  336,  337 

Population,  percentage  of,   on  the 

farms 4 

Ports,    anchor 313 

Potential    difference 463 

distribution  of,  in  lamp  circuits  493 

unit  of 464 

Pounding 398 

Power,   boiler   horse 340 

definition  of 11 

electrical 466 

by  heating  surface 341 

horse  power  by  test 340 

mills 235,  317 

alfalfa  mills 237 

capacity  of  feed  mills 237 

corn   crushers 238 

presses 189 

sacking   elevators 236 

the  selection  of  a  feed  mill..  236 

Present  engine,  the 361 

Pressure,  mean  effective 25 

Prime  movers 281 

Priming 339,  356 

Principle  of  the  commutator 479 

Product,  quality    of 6 

Production,  cost  of 5 

increase  in  4 

Pulley,   belt 32 

definition  of 16 

differential 16 

rules  for   calculating  speed 32 

Pumping  machinery 256 

centrifugal   pumps 269 

early  methods  of  raising  water.  256 

force  pumps 265 

double-pipe    or    under     force 

pumps 265 

hydraulic    information 258 

lift  pumps 263 

modern    pumps 263 

power   pumps 268 

pump    cylinders 267 

pump   principles 258 

reciprocating  pumps 257 

rotary  pumps 269 

Pumps,  feed 330 

Quality  of  products 6 

Racing 388 

Rakes,   development 171 

endless-apron  reversible 173 

one-way 173 

self-dump 1 72 

side-delivery  rakes 172 

steel  dump  or  sulky 172 

Ransom,   Robert 53 

Rating 457 

Reading  an  indicator  diagram....  384 

Rear   mounting 440 

Reasons  for  lead 370 

Reciprocating  pumps 257 

Reconstructed   turbines 299 


INDEX 


5" 


PAGE 

Reducing  motion 24 

Reenforcements  of  plows 58 

Regulation,   wind   wheels 306 

of  speed 458 

Repairing  a  dynamo 657 

Resistance 466 

comparative 467 

laws  of 467 

overcome  by  horse 288 

unit  of 467 

Return-flue    boilers 324 

Reversing  a  simple  slide-valve  en- 
gine      377 

Reversing  the  engine  on  the  road  455 

Reversing   gears 378 

double-eccentric 378 

link  motion 378 

single-eccentric 380 

Rheostats 468 

Right-hand   rule 465 

Ring-armature    direct-current    dy- 
namo    480 

Riveted  joints 344 

Rivets 342 

Road    rollers 453 

Rods,  stay 343 

Rollers,  land 87 

road 453 

Rope  transmission 33 

cotton 34 

hemp 34 

manilla ; . . .     34 

sheaves 34 

splice ." 35 

wire 34 

Rotary   pumps ^ 269 

Rotating    coils,    currents    induced 

in-.' 475 

Round-bottom  types 324 

Running  the  engine 396 

Sacking   elevators 236 

Safety  or  pop  valve. 335,  336,  337,  352 

Sanborn,  J.  W 73 

Saturated   steam 366 

Scouring  of  plows 71 

Screen,   the 15 

Section  modulus 48 

Seeders 102 

classification  of 104 

combination no 

end-gate  seeder,  the 105 

hand   seeder,  the 104 

wheelbarrow  seeder,  the 105 

Selection  of  a  sulky  plow 75 

Self-erciting  principle  of  dynamos  181 

Self  feeder  and  band  cutter 214 

Self  induction 196 

Self-recording   dynamometer 20 

Semi-anthracite    coal 348 

Separator    or    modern    threshing 

machine 206 

Set  of  coulters 70 

sulky   plows 70 

walking  plows 69 

Setting      double-eccentric      valve, 

the 379 


PAGE 

Setting  engine,  an 456 

slide  valve,  the 376 

Shafting 38 

Shape  of  a  magnetic  field  about  a 

current 464 

Share  bar 38 

hardening 72 

sharpening  steel 71 

s"P 57 

Shear    46 

Shears  of  a  pulley 46 

Shin 56 

Shoe  drill iii 

for   wire  rope 34 

Shunts 469 

Shunt  dynamos 482 

Side   mounting 437 

Single-eccentric  reverse   gear 380 

Single-riveted  lap  joint 344 

Siphon  or  ejector 330 

Size  of  plows 58 

Sleds 254 

capacity   255 

selection  of 254 

Slide  valve 369 

setting  the. 376 

Slip  share 56 

Small,   James 52 

Smoke    prevention 351 

Smoothing    harrow 78 

Soft    coal,   firing   with 354 

Sources  of  energy 281 

Space,   steam 340 

Spading   harrow 85 

Spark  arrester 339 

Sparking  at  the   commutator 486 

Speed,  effect  of  increase  of 294 

Splice-rope 35 

Spring-tooth    harrow 81 

Stackers 215 

Starting  the  engine 395 

Static  electricity 462 

Stay  bolts 343 

Stay  rods 343 

Steam,  expansion  of 367 

generation    of 365 

saturated 366 

superheated 366 

total  heat  of. 366 

volume  and  weight  of 367 

Steam   boilers 317 

classification   of 318 

principle  of 317 

Steam  engine,  classification  of....   364 

commercial  rating  of 394 

compound 392 

double-cylinder 391 

early  forms 361 

hooking  up 378 

horse   power 394 

leaks 396 

losses   in  cylinder 368 

Newcomen's 361 

parts  of 364 

present,   the 361 

reversing 377 


512 


INDEX 


PAGE 

Steam  engine,  running 396 

starting  the 395 

stopping 396 

Steam  and  gas  engine  indicators. .      24 

Steam  gauge 335,  336,  337,  352 

Steam  plow 68 

Steel 342 

cast 45 

link  belting 33 

mild  and  Bessemer 45 

soft    center 45 

tool     45 

towers 313 

Stopping  the  engine 396 

Straw 348 

burners 328 

Strength  of  boilers 342 

of  the  boiler  shell 344 

of   materials 46 

table  of 49 

of  muscles 286 

Subsoil  plow 66 

Subsurface  packer 90 

Suction 69 

Sulky    plow 58 

Superheated  steam 365 

Supply  tank 330 

Sweep   powers 297 

Sweep    rakes 178 

Tackle 16 

Tank,    supply 330 

Tap 16 

Tension 46 

Test  of  boilers  for  strength 346 

hammer 347 

hydraulic 346 

Test,  horse  power  by 340 

Testing    426 

Tests  of  mills 309 

Thresher 1 54 

combined  harvesters  and  thresh- 
ers     154 

Threshing   machinery 203 

bean  and  pea  threshers 218 

clover  hullers,  . . , 219 

development 203 

modern     tlireshing    machine    or 

separator 206 

attachments,  threshing  machine.   214 
self  feeder  and  band  cutter..    214 

stackers 215 

weighers 216 

wind  stacker  or  blower 215 

Throttling  governors 386,  4 1 1 

indicator  diagram  from 388 

principle  of  the 387 

Tillage,  objects  of 51 

Tillage  machinery 51 

American  development  of 53 

Tires,  width  of 452 

Tongueless  disk  harrow 87 

Total  heat  of  steam 366 

Towers 311 

height 315 

steel 313 

Trace,  direction  of 289 


PAGE 

Traction 451 

Traction  dynamometer 19 

Traction    engines 436 

gasoline 456 

on  the  road 459 

rating 457 

regulation  of  speed 458 

traction 459 

Transformers   498 

Transmission  dynamometer 19 

Transmission,    electrical 42 

gearing 449 

of  power 28 

Tread  power,  the 295 

the  work  of  a  horse  in  a 296 

Triangles 36 

Troubles,  gasoline  engine 428 

Turbine   windmills 303 

Tubular  roller 89 

Two-cycle  engine 404 

strokes  of  . 404 

Types  of  gasoline  engines 402 

Types  of  sulky  plows 60 

Under  mounted  boilers 444 

Unit  of  potential   difference,  volt 

on 464 

of  resistance 466 

of  work II 

Use  of  the  windmill,  the 303 

Value  of  fuels 348 

Valve 411 

action  of 430 

balanced 373 

double-ported 373 

lap  of 369 

piston 374 

safety  or  pop 335.  336,  337,  352 

setting  the  double-eccentric...  379 

slide 369 

Vector  quantity 10 

Vertical   boilers 318 

Volts 27 

Volt  or  unit  of  potential  difference  464 

Voltmeter 466 

Volume  of  air  for  combustion...  350 

Volume  and  weight  of  steam 367 

Wages,  increase  of 3 

Wagons 240 

buggies  and  sleds 239 

capacity   246 

development  of 239 

draft  of 246 

handy  wagons 251 

material 240 

Water-cooled  engines 420 

glass 353 

low 357 

Water  columns 334 

leveling  the 353 

Watts 27 

Webster's  plow 53 

Weigher  threshing  machine 216 

Weight 288 

Wheelbarrow   seeder 105 

White  iron 44 

Width  of  hock 291 


INDEX 


513 


PAGE 

Width  of  tires 45a 

Windmills 298 

classification 303 

development  of  present-day ....   298 

early  history. 298 

economic  considerations  of 314 

erecting 313 

gearing 307 

home-made 299 

power 316 

power  of 308 

tests  of 309 

turbine 303 

the  use  of  the 303 

Wind  stacker  or  blower 215 

Wind    wheels 304 

efficiency 307 


PAGE 

Wind   wheels,   regulation 306 

Wire  belt  lacing 31 

Wire  table,  copper 498 

Wiring  calculations  for  a  motor.  .  494 

W^omen,  labor  of 4 

Wood,   Jethro 54 

Wood 43,  347 

and  cob  burners 326 

Wooden  pumps 263 

Work,  best  conditions  for 293 

definition  of 10 

division    of 294 

the  horse  at 291 

unit  of II 

"Working  day,  length  of 5 

effect  of  length  of 294 


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The  Management  and  Feeding  of  Cattle 

By  Prof.  Thomas  Shaw.  The  place  for  this  book  will 
be  at  once  apparent  when  it  is  stated  that  it  is  the  first 
book  that  has  ever  been  written  which  discusses  the  man- 
agement and  feeding  of  cattle,  from  the  birth  of  the  calf 
until  it  has  fulfilled  its  mission  in  life,  whether  on  the 
block  or  at  the  pail.  The  book  is  handsomely  printed  on 
fine  paper,  from  large,  clear  type.  Fully  illustrated.  5^x8 
inches.     496  pages.      Cloth.    .     .     r Net,  $2.00 

The  Farmer's  Veterinarian 

By  Charlfs  William  Burkett.  This  book  abounds  in 
helpful  suggestions  and  valuable  information  for  the  most 
successful  treatment  of  ills  and  accidents,  and  disease 
troubles.  A  practical  treatise  on  the  diseases  of  farm 
stock;  containing  brief  and  popular  advice  on  the  nature, 
cause  and  treatment  of  disease,  the  common  ailments  and 
the  care  and  management  of  stock  when  sick.  It  is 
profusely  illustrated,  containing  a  number  of  halftone 
illustrations,  and  a  great  many  drawings  picturing  diseases, 
their  symptoms  and  familiar  attitudes  assumed  by  farm 
animals  when  affected  with  disease,  and  presents,  for  the 
first  time,  a  plain,  practical  and  satisfactory  guide  for 
farmers  who  are  interested  in  the  common  diseases  of  the 
farm.    Illustrated.   5x7  inches.  288  pages.    Cloth.   Net,  $1.50. 

First  Lessons  in  Dairying 

By  Hubert  E.  Van  Norman.  This  splendid  little  book 
has  been  written  from  a  practical  point  of  view,  to  fill 
a  place  in  dairy  literature  long  needed.  It  is  designed 
primarily  as  a  practical  guide  to  successful  dairying,  an 
elementary  text-book  for  colleges  and  for  use  especially 
in  short-course  classes.  It  embodies  underlying  principlei 
involved  in  the  handling  of  milk,  delivery  to  factory,  ship- 
ping station,  and  the  manufacture  of  butter  on  the  farm, 
It  is  written  in  a  simple,  popular  way,  being  free  from  tech- 
nical terms,  and  is  easily  understood  by  the  average  farm 
boy.  The  book  is  just  the  thing  for  the  every-day  dairy- 
man, and  should  be  in  the  hands  of  every  farmer  in  the 
country.  Illustrated.  5x7  inches.  100  pages.  Cloth.  Net,  $0.50. 

A  Dairy  Laboratory  Guide 

By  H.  E.  Ross.  While  the  book  is  intended  primarily 
for  use  in  the  laboratory,  it  should  be  of  value  to  the 
practical  dairyman.  The  time  has  come  when  the  suc- 
cessful dairyman  must  study  his  business  from  a  purely 
scientific  point  of  view,  and  in  this  book  the  scientific 
principles,  upon  which  dairy  industry  is  based,  are  stated 
clearly  and  simply,  and  wherever  it  is  possible,  these  prin- 
ciples are  illustrated  by  practical  problems  and  examples. 

90  pages.     5x7  inches      Cloth Net,  $0.50 

(2) 


Profitable  Stock  Raising 

By  Clarence  A.  Shamel.  This  book  covers  fully  the 
principles  of  breeding  and  feeding  for  both  fat  stock  and 
dairying  type.  It  tells  of  sheep  and  mutton  raising,  hot 
Kouse  lambs,  the  swine  industry  and  the  horse  market. 
Finally,  he  tells  of  the  preparation  of  stock  for  the  market 
and  how  to  prepare  it  so  that  it  will  bring  a  high  market 
price.  Live  stock  is  the  most  important  feature  of  farm 
life,  and  statistics  show  a  production  far  short  of  the 
actual  requirements.  There  are  many  problems  to  be 
faced  in  the  profitable  production  of  stock,  and  these  are 
fully  and  comprehensively  covered  in  Mr.  Shamel's  new 
book.       Illustrated.       5x7     inches.       288     pages.       Cloth. 

Net,  $1.50 

The  Business  of  Dairying 

By  C.  B.  Lane.  The  author  of  this  practical  little  book 
is  to  be  congratulated  on  the  successful  manner  in  which 
he  has  treated  so  important  a  subject.  It  has  been  pre- 
pared for  the  use  of  dairy  students,  producers  and  handlers 
of  milk,  and  all  who  make  dairying  a  business.  Its  pur- 
pose is  to  present  in  a  clear  and  concise  manner  various 
business  methods  and  systems  which  will  help  the  dairy- 
man to  reap  greater  profits.  This  book  meets  the  needs 
of  the  average  dairy  farmer,  and  if  carefully  followed  wil': 
lead  to  successful  dairying.  It  may  also  be  used  as  an 
elementary  textbook  for  colleges,  and  especially  in  short- 
ourse  classes.     Illustrated.    5x7  inches.    300  pages.     Clotli. 

Net,  $1.25 

Questions  and  Answers  on  Buttermaking 

By  Chas  a,  Publow.  This  book  is  entirely  different 
from  the  usual  type  of  dairy  books,  and  is  undoubtedly  in 
a  class  uy  itself.  The  entire  subject  of  butter-making  in 
all  its  branches  has  been  most  thoroughly  treated,  and 
many  new  and  important  features  hpve  been  added.  The 
tests  for  moisture,  salt  and  acid  have  received  special 
attention,  as  have  also  the  questions  on  cream  separa- 
tion, pasteurization,  commercial  starters,  cream  ripening, 
cream  overrun,  marketing  of  butter,  and  creamery  man- 
agement.     Illustrated.      5x7    inches.      100    pages.      Cloth 

Net,  $0.50 

Questions  and  Answers  on  Milk  and  Milk  Testing 

By  Chas.  A.  Publow,  and  Hugh  C.  Troy.  A  book  that 
no  student  in  the  dairy  industry  can  afford  to  be  without. 
No  other  treatise  of  its  kind  is  available,  and  no  book  of 
its  size  gives  so  much  practical  and  useful  information  in 
the  study  of  milk  and  milk  products.  Illustrated.  5x7 
inches.      100    pages.      Cloth Net,  $0.50 

(3) 


Bean  Culture 

By  Glenn  C.  Sevey,  B.S.  A  practical  treatise  on  the  pro 
duction  and  marketing  of  beans.  It  includes  the  manner  oi 
growth,  soils  and  fertilizers  adapted,  best  varieties,  seed  selec- 
tion and  breeding,  planting,  harvesting,  insects  and  fungous 
pests,  composition  and  feeding  value;  with  a  special  chapter 
on  markets  by  Albert  W.  Fulton.  A  practical  book  for  the 
grower  and  student  alike.  Illustrated.  144  pages.  5x7 
inches.     Cloth $0.50 

Celery  Culture 

By  W.  R.  Beattie.  A  practical  guide  for  beginners  and  a 
standard  reference  of  great  interest  to  persons  already  en- 
gaged in  celery  growing.  It  contains  many  illustrations  giving 
a  clear  conception  of  the  practical  side  of  celery  culture.  The 
work  is  complete  in  every  detail,  from  sowing  a  few  seeds  in 
a  window-box  in  the  house  for  early  plants,  to  the  handling 
and  marketing  of  celery  in  carload  lots.  Fully  illustrated. 
150  pages.    5x7  inches.     Cloth $0.50 

Tomato  Culture 

By  Will  W.  Tracy.  The  author  has  rounded  up  in  this 
book  the  most  complete  account  of  tomato  culture  in  all  its 
phases  that  has  ever  been  gotten  togetucr.  It  is  no  seconr*- 
hand  work  of  reference,  but  a  complete  story  of  the  practic. 
experiences  of  the  best-posted  expert  on  tomatoes  in  the 
world.  No  gardener  or  farmer  can  afiford  to  be  without  the 
book.  Whether  grown  for  home  use  or  commercial  purposes, 
the  reader  has  here  suggestions  and  information  nowhere  else 
available.    Illustrated.    150  pages.    5x7  inches.    Cloth.    $0.50 

The  Potato 

By  Samuel  Fraser.  This  book  is  destined  to  rank  as  a 
standard  work  upon  Potato  Culture.  While  the  practical  side 
has  been  emphasized,  the  scientific  part  has  not  been  neglected, 
and  the  information  given  is  of  value,  both  to  the  growej-  and 
to  the  student.  Taken  all  in  all,  it  is  the  most  complete,  reliable 
and  authoritative  book  on  the  potato  ever  published  in  Amer- 
ica.   Illustrated.    200  pages.    5x7  inches.    Cloth.    .     .     $0.75 

Dwarf  Fruit  Trees 

By  F.  A.  Waugh.  This  interesting  book  describes  in  detail 
the  several  varieties  of  dwarf  fruit  trees,  their  propagation, 
planting,  pruning,  care  and  general  management.  Where 
there  is  a  limited  amount  of  ground  to  be  devoted  to  orchard 
purposes,  and  where  quick  results  are  desired,  this  book  will 
meet  with  a  warm  welcome.     Illustrated.     112  pages.     5x7 

inches.     Cloth.     ......-- $0.50 

(6) 


Cabbage,  Cauliflower  and  Allied  Vegetables 

By  C.  L.  Allen.  A  practical  treatise  on  the  various 
types  and  varieties  of  cabbage,  cauliflower,  broccoli,  Brussels 
sprouts,  kale,  collards  and  kohl-rabi.  An  explanation  is  given 
of  the  requirements,  conditions,  cultivation  alid  general  man- 
agement pertaining  to  the  entire  cabbage  group.  After  this 
each  class  is  treated  separately  and  in  detail.  The  chapter 
on  seed  raising  is  probably  the  most  authoritative  treatise  on 
this  subject  ever  published.  Insects  and  fungi  attacking  this 
class  of  vegetables  are  given  due  attention.  Illustrated.  126 
pages.    5x7  inches.    Cloth $0.50 


Asparagus 

By  F.  M.  Hexamer.  This  is  the  first  book  published  in 
America  which  is  exclusively  devoted  to  the  raising  of  aspara- 
gus for  home  use  as  well  as  foi  market.  It  is  a  practicp^ 
and  reliable  treatise  on  the  saving  of  the  seed,  raising  of  the 
plants,  selection  and  preparation  of  the  soil,  planting,  cultiva- 
tion, manuring,  cutting,  bunching,  packing,  marketing,  canning 
and  drying,  insect  enemies,  fungous  diseases  and  every  re- 
quirement to  successful  asparagus  culture,  special  emphasis  be- 
ing given  to  the  importance  of  asparagus  as  a  farm  and  m.oney 
crop.    Illustrated.     174  pages.    5x7  inches.     Cloth.     .     $0.50 


The  New  Onion  Culture 

By  T.  Grfiner.  Rewritten,  greatly  enlarged  and  brought 
up  to  date.  A  new  method  of  growing  onions  of  largest  size 
and  yield,  on  less  land,  than  can  be  raised  by  the  old  plan. 
Thousands  of  farmers  and  gardeners  and  many  experiment 
stations  have  given  it  practical  trials  which  have  proved  a 
success.  A  complete  guide  in  growing  onions  with  the  great- 
est profit,  explaining  the  whys  and  wherefores.  Illustrated 
5x7  inches.     140  pages.     Cloth $0.50 


The  New  Rhubarb  Culture 

A  complete  guide  to  dark  forcing  and  field  culture.  Part 
I — By  J.  E.  Morse,  the  well-known  Michigan  trucker  and 
originator  of  the  now  famous  and  extremely  profitable  new 
methods  of  dark  forcing  and  held  culture.  Part  II — Com- 
piled by  G.  B.  FiSKE.  Other  .methods  practiced  by  the  most 
experienced  market  gardeners,  greenhouse  men  and  experi- 
menters in  all  parts  of  America.  Illustrated.  130  pages. 
5x7  inches.     Clot^> $0.50 

(7) 


Alfalfa 

By  F.  D.  CoBURN.  Its  growt..,  ases,  and  feeding  value. 
The  fact  that  alfalfa  thrives  in  almost  any  soil;  that  without 
reseeding,  it  goes  on  yielding  two,  three,  four,  and  sometimes 
five  cuttings  annually  for  five,  ten,  or  perhaps  lOO  years ;  and 
that  either  green  or  cured  it  is  one  of  the  most  nutritious 
forage  plants  known,  makes  reliable  information  upon  its  pro- 
duction and  uses  of  unusual  interest.  Such  information  is 
given  in  this  volume  for  every  part  of  America,  by  the  highest 
authority.    Illustrated.    164  pages.    5x7  inches.    Cloth.    $0.50 

Ginseng,    Its    Cultivation,    Harvesting,    Marketing 
and  Market  Value 

By  Maurice  G.  Kains,  with  a  short  account  of  its  history 
and  botany.  It  discusses  in  a  practical  way  how  to  begin  with 
either  seeds  or  roots,  soil,  climate  and  location,  preparation 
planting  and  maintenance  of  the  beds,  artificial  propagation, 
manures,  enemies,  selection  for  market  and  for  improvement, 
preparation  for  sale,  and  the  profits  that  may  be  expected. 
This  booklet  is  concisely  written,  well  and  profusely  illus- 
trated, and  should  be  in  the  hands  of  all  who  expect  to  grow 
this  drug  to  supply  the  export  trade,  and  to  add  a  new  and 
profitable  industry  to  their  farms  and  gardens,  without  inter- 
fering with  the  regular  work.  New  edition.  Revised  and  en- 
larged.    Illustrated.     5x7  inches.     Cloth $0.50 

Landscape  Gardening 

By  F.  A.  Waugh,  professor  of  horticulture,  university  of 
Vermont.  A  treatise  on  the  general  principles  governing 
outdoor  art;  with  sundry  suggestions  for  their  application 
in  the  commoner  problems  of  gardening.  Every  paragraph  is 
short,  terse  and  to  the  point,  giving  perfect  clearness  to  the 
discussions  at  all  points.  In  spite  of,  the  natural  difBculty 
of  presenting  abstract  principles  the  whole  matter ,  is  made 
entirely  plain  even  to  the  inexperienced  reader.  Illustrated. 
152  pages.     5x7  inches.     Cloth $0.50 

Hedges,  Windbreaks,  Shelters  and  Live  Fences 

By  E.  P.  Powell.  A  treatise  on  the  plantiiig.  growth 
and  management  of  hedge  plants  for  country  and  suburban 
homes.  It  gives  accurate  directions  concerning  hedges;  how 
to  plant  and  how  to  treat  them;  and  especially  concerning 
windbreaks  and  shelters.  It  includes  the  whole  art  of  making 
a  delightful  home,  giving  directions  for  nooks  and  balconies, 
for  bird  culture  and  for  human  comfort.  Illustrated.  140 
pages.    5x7  inches.    Cloth $0.50 


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